Country  Lif^e 

AN  D 

The  Country  School 


CARNEY 


LIBRARY 
Connecticut  Agricultural  College 


Vol-  3  4  I.^C) ^.Q^ 


Class  No. 


^21 C2.f 


Date 


Cost  R.e.Doci^-^   L.^^^j 


4 


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SCHOOL     19]i^,, 


=1153    0012Q65S    M 


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This  Book  may  be  kept  out 

TWO  WEEKS 

only  and   is   subject   to  a  fine  of 
TWO   GENTS  a  day  thereafter. 
It  will  be  due  on  the  day  indicated        ^ 
below^.  {\^ 


.MAY2  51931      --^  ,^^J^ 

^231935,/      JUL  2  6, 48 
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COUNTRY  LIFE        '^^ 

AND  .  v 

THE    COUNTRY    SCHOOL    ^"^^^ 


A  Study  of  the  Agencies  of  Rural  Progress  and  of  the 

Social  Relationship  of  the  School 

to  the  Country  Community 


BY 

]\IABEL  CARNEY 
•  •  \ 

DIRECTOR    OF   THE    COUNTRY    SCHOOL    DEPARTMENT    IN    THE    ILLINOIS    STATE 

NORMAL    UNIVERSITY,    NORMAL  ;    FORMERLY    COUNTRY    TRAINING 

TEACHER   OF   THE   WESTERN    ILLINOIS     STATE    NORMAL 

SCHOOL,   MACOMB 


CHICAGO 
ROW,    PETERSON    AND    COMPANY 


Good  Books  For  Teachers 


Methods  of  Teaching — Charters $i 


25 


Principles  of  Teaching — Harvey 1.25 

Reading  in  PubHc  Schools — Briggs  &  Coffman 1.25 

School  Management — Salisbury i.oo 

The  Theory  of  Teaching — Salisbury 1.25 

The  Educational   Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and   Indus- 
tries— Row 1.25 

The  Personality  of  the  Teacher — AIcKenny i.oo 

The  Psychology  of  Conduct — Schroeder 1.25 


Xi/  5  0 


Copyright,    1912 
ROW,    PETERSON    AND    COMPANY 


To  the  spirit  of  the  little  country  school 
that  gave  it  being,  and  to  the  country 
teachers  of  Illinois  Zi'hose  loyalty  and 
earnest  effort  have  been  a  chief  inspira- 


tion in  its  undertaking. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  for  farmers  and  country  teachers,  written  not 
about  them,  but  to  them.  It  takes  form  as  the  direct  outgrowth 
and  personal  need  of  eight  years'  work  in  country  teaching  and 
the  training  of  country  teachers.  ^lany  of  its  pages  were 
written  within  the  walls  of  a  country  schoolroom,  and  prac- 
tically all  of  its  suggestions  have  been  tried  with  success  in 
average  country  communities. 

The  fundamental  line  of  thought  here  maintained  unfolds 
as  follows : 

First,  that  the  chief  relief  for  the  present  undesirable  condi- 
tions of  country  life  is  to  be  realized  through  the  cooperative 
endeavor  of  farmers  and  the  upbuilding  of  local  country 
communities. 

Second,  that  the  country  school  of  all  rural  'social  institu- 
tions makes  the  best  and  most  available  center  for  upbuilding 
the  rural  community,  and  bears  at  present  the  greatest  respon- 
sibility for  socializing  country  life. 

Third,  that  to  realize  this  social  service  of  the  country  school 
country  teachers  must  become  local  community  leaders. 

And  fourth,  that  to  fulfill  this  office  of  leadership  efficiently 
country  teachers  must  be  afiforded  special  training  through 
state  normal  schools  and  other  institutions  of  learning. 

The  discussion  thus  presented  views  the  country  school  as 
an  immediate  agency  for  rural  progress,  and  to  this  end  seeks 
especially  to  stimulate  and  assist  country  teachers  to  local 
leadership.  In  realizing  this  purpose  a  twofold  task  has  pre- 
sented itself.  It  has  been  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  reveal 
the  social-service  responsibility  of  the  country  school;  and 
second,  to  lay  down  a  practical  line  of  action,  or  program  of 

V 


VI 


PREFACE 


work,  showing  concretely  how  this  responsibihty  may  be  dis- 
charged by  the  individual  teacher.  In  furthering  the  latter 
end  it  has  been  necessary  to  include,  also,  considerable  definite 
information  concerning  the  various  agencies  of  farm  life  with 
which  the  country  teacher  must  cooperate  in  seeking  to  upbuild 
the  rural  community.  This  information  covers  only  what  all 
country  teachers  who  aspire  to  community  leadership  and 
service  must  possess,  and  what  every  progressive  farmer 
should  know.  It  is  this  body  of  data  and  discussion  which 
will  make  the  book,  it  is  believed,  one  of  direct  value  for 
farmers  as  well  as  for  country  teachers. 

It  has  been  the  hope  throughout  this  attempt  to  present  a 
new  vision  of  country  teaching.  If  this  has  been  done,  and  if 
the  country  teachers  who  read  this  book  are  stimulated  to 
renewed  action  and  encouragement  for  their  many  difficult 
tasks,  the  effort  lying  behind  its  realization  will  be  fully 
compensated. 

Normal,  Illinois,  September,  1912.  M.  C. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

To  insure  accuracy  and  practicability  in  the  treatment  of  the 
various  phases  of  country  Hfe  discussed  in  this  book,  different 
chapters  have  been  read  and  criticized  by  speciaHsts  in  the 
lines  to  which  they  refer. 

Special  acknowledgment  for  this  generous  service  is  here 
gratefully  extended  to :  jNIrs.  H.  M.  Dunlap,  president  of  the 
Department  of  Household  Science  of  the  Illinois  Farmers' 
Institute,  for  reading  the  chapter  on  the  farm  home;  to  Dr. 
Warren  H.  Wilson  and  Miss  Anna  B.  Taft,  Superintendent 
and  Assistant  Superintendent  of  the  Department  of  Church 
and  Country  Life  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Home  Alis- 
sions,  for  reading  the  chapter  on  the  country  church ;  to  Sec- 
retary Albert  E.  Roberts  of  the  International  Committee  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  for  reading  the  section 
on  this  organization;  to  Mr.  Oliver  Wilson,  Master  of  the 
National  Grange  and  editor  of  the  National  Grange  Monthly, 
for  reading  the  chapter  on  the  Grange ;  to  Farmers'  Institute 
Specialist  John  Hamilton  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  for  reading  the  chapter  on  farmers'  institutes ;  to 
Air.  Arthur  J.  Bill,  editor  of  the  Farmers'  Voice,  Bloomington, 
Illinois,  for  reading  the  section  relating  to  the  agricultural 
press  and  for  the  use  of  numerous  photographs ;  to  Mr.  A.  N. 
Johnson,  State  Highway  Engineer  of  Illinois,  for  reading  the 
chapter  on  roads ;  to  Dr.  Ernest  Burnham,  director  of  the 
Rural  School  Department  of  the  Michigan  State  Normal 
School  at  Kalamazoo,  for  reading  the  chapter  on  the  train- 
ing of  country  teachers ;  to  County  Superintendents  O.  J. 
Kern  and  George  W.  Brown,  of  Winnebago  and  Edgar  Coun- 
ties in  Illinois,  for  reading  the  chapter  on  supervision;  and 

vu 


viii  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

to  Miss  Lillian  K.  Sabine  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Uni- 
versity, for  a  careful  literary  editing  of  the  entire  manuscript. 

To  these  and  to  the  many  state  superintendents,  county 
superintendents,  country  teachers,  and  rural  life  workers,  who 
have  courteously  and  kindly  assisted  me  throughout  the  inves- 
tigations spent  upon  this  study,  I  ofifer  my  sincere  appreciation. 
Special  mention  should  be  made  also  of  the  assistance  of  Presi- 
dent Kenyon  L.  Butterfield  of  the  Alassachusetts  College  of 
Agriculture,  whose  thought  and  suggestion,  as  expressed  in 
books,  lectures,  and  personal  conference,  has  been  a  funda- 
mental guide  in  fostering  any  elements  of  worth  that  may 
exist  in  the  conclusions  here  presented. 

But  more  than  to  all  others,  gratitude  is  due  to  Dr.  Frederick 
G.  Bonser  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  formerly 
of  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  who  has  not  only 
read  practically  the  entire  manuscript  of  the  book  and  given 
invaluable  advice  as  to  its  organization  and  expression,  but  has 
inspired  and  encouraged  the  undertaking  throughout  its  accom- 
plishment. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 
The  Farm  Problem  and  Its  Solution 

PAGE 

The  problem  stated i 

Its   significance    3 

Cause  :   isolation   in  country  life 4 

Solution  of  the  farm  problem 7 

Country  community  building 9 

Cooperation    the    keynote    in    the    solution    of    the    farm 

problem    10 

Agencies  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  country  community.  .  12 

Chief  functions  and  needs  of  rural  social   institutions.  .  12 

Overlapping  of  agencies  in  function  and  effort 14 

Federation  of  community  agencies ^16 

Platform  for  the  improvement  of  country  life 16 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Farm  Home 

The  farm  home  as  an  agency  for  country  life  progress.  .  18 

Present  conditions  in  farm  homes 19 

The  improvement  of  farm  home  life 24 

The  decrease  of  household  labor 25 

Vocational  education  for  country  women 29 

The  participation  of  farm  women  in  community  affairs ...  30 

The  spirituaHzing  of  farm  home  life 31 

The  farm  home  as  the  center  of  rural  interests 33 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  III 
The  Country  Church 

PAGE 

The  country  church  as  an  agency  for  rural  progress.  ...     39 
The  present  status  of  country  churches  :    Digest  of  country 
church  information  from  the  rephes  gathered  by  the 
Country  Life  Commission 40 

What  Is  Being  Done  for  Progress 

Church    federation 47 

Special  training  for  country  ministers 51 

The  Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  of  Home  Missions 53 

County  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  .  57 

What  Might  Be  Done  for  Progress 

General  lines  of  progress 60 

Possibilities  for  progress  in  the  individual  local  church ; 
story  of  the  DuPage  Presbyterian   Church   in  Will 

County,   Illinois 62 

The  country  teacher's  attitude  and  relation  to  the  church 

question :  ; 67 

The  coming  unity  among  churches 69 


CHAPTER  IV 

The  Grange 

The  Grange  as  an  agency  for  country  life  progress 'J2 

Origin  and  purpose  of  the  Grange 72 

History    75 

Organization    76 

Work  and  influence   78 

The    subordinate    Grange    at    work;    Magnolia    Grange, 

Putnam    County,    Illinois 81 


CONTENTS  xi 


PAGE 

Words  of  warning  to  the  Grange 85 

Farmers'   clubs gr 

Cooperation  between  the  Grange  and  the  country  school .  .     88 


CHAPTER  V 

Farmers'  Institutes  and  the  Agricultural  Press 

Farmers'  institutes  as  an  agency  for  country  life  progress  90 

Origin  and  history  of  farmers'  institutes 90 

Organization   of   farmers'    institutes 93 

Present  status  and  progress 96 

The  agricultural  press  as  a  rural  socializing  agency 100 

Farmers'   institutes  and  the   country  school 102 

CHAPTER  VI 

Roads  and  the  Road  Problem 

Roads  as  an  agency  for  country  life  progress 108 

The  road  problem  a  national  issue 108 

The  road  system  of  France  as  a  type  of  efficient  high- 
way   organization no 

Organization  of  the  American  highway  system 113 

Some  defects  of  the  American  highway  system 114 

Suggestions  for  an  improved  highway  system . .  .  117 

Some  progressive   road   movements   and   reforms :   legis- 
lative  improvements 118 

State  aid  and  increased  revenue 119 

Developments  in  road  science 119 

Increased  road  sentiment  and  cooperation 122 

Road  beautifying 125 

Road  education 126 

The  country  school  and  the  road  problem 129 

Roads  of  the   future 131 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VII 

The  Country  School  as  an  Agency  in  the  Solution  of  the 

Farm  Problem 

PAGE 

Function  of  the  country  school  defined 133 

The  school  as  a  center  for  the  building  of  the  country  com- 
munity      134 

Advantages  of  the  country  school  for  rural  institutional 

leadership    136 

Leadership  of  the  school  largely  a  temporary  function..  138 

Needs  of  the  country  school 139 

The  one-teacher  country  school  system  and  its  defects..  140 

The  country  school  system  of  the  future 145 

Consolidation  the  fundamental  need  of  country  schools.  148 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Consolidated  Country  Schools 

Definition  and  types 149 

Possibilities  of  consolidation ;  The  John  Swaney  Consoli- 
dated School  of  Putnam  County,  Illinois 150 

History  and  status  of  the  consolidation  movement 159 

Advantages   of   consolidation 170 

Difficulties  involved 171 

Some  phases  of  the  question  of  transportation 171 

The  cost  of  consolidated  schools 174 

The    consolidated    country    school    compared    with   other 

types   of   rural   high    schools 176 

The  need  of  a  county  system  of  districting  for  consoli- 
dation     181 

The  consolidated  school  as  a  community  center  and  in  the 

future  development  of  country  life 184 


CONTENTS  xiii 
CHAPTER  IX 

The  Leadership  of  the  Country  Teacher 

PAGE 

Scarcity  of  rural  leaders  and  its  efifect i88 

Opportunity  and  advantages  of  the  country  teacher  for 

community  leadership 189 

Requirements    for    leadership    on    the    part    of    country 

teachers    190 

True  leadership  explained 192 

Difficulties  of  country  teaching 193 

Tribute  to  country  teachers 195 

Examples  of  country  teacher  leadership 196 

Country   life   creed 203 


CHAPTER  X 

The  Country  Teacher's  Problem  and  Its  Attack 

The   problem   stated 205 

The  method  of  its  attack 206 

I.     Improving  the  Physical  Exviroxmext  of  the  Couxtry  School 

The  building — 

Defects  of   country   school  buildings 206 

Heating   and   ventilation 210 

Lighting    214 

Interior    finish    and    decoration 216 

Seating    219 

Sanitation  and  care 221 

The  grounds — 

Beginning  yard  improvement 224 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

What  to  plant 225 

Walks  and  fences 227 

Summer  houses,  arbors,  and  arches 228 

Outbuildings    228 

II.  Socializing  the  Country  School  and  AIaking  It  ax  Institution 

OF  Community  Service 

Personal  leadership  of  the  teacher ;  visiting  among  people  229 

Social  activities  of  the  children  ;  boys'  and  girls'  clubs 230 

Making  the  school  a  center  for  the  community ;  school- 
house    meetings 232 

Developing  cooperation   between   the   home   and   school ; 

parents'   clubs 234 

Other  agencies  for  the  socialization  of  the  country  school ; 

newspapers;   exhibits;    educational   excursions 235 

A  country  life  club  the  best  social  organization   for  the 

country    school ' 237 

Cooperation  of  the  school  with  other  community  institu- 
tions  and  agencies 238 

III.  Vitalizing    and    Enriching    the    Country    School    Course   of 

Study 

The  redirection  of  old  subject-matter 240 

The  introduction  of  new  courses 242 

Elementary  rural  sociology  in  the  country  school 245 

IV.  Improving  the  Administration  of  the  School  and  Teaching 

the  Necessity  of  a  Change  of  System,  or  Consolida- 
tion^   FOR    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS 

The  beginning  of  a  consolidation  campaign 248 

General   educational   campaigns 249 

Township   or    community    organization 249 

Outspoken  consolidation  campaigns 250 


CONTENTS  XV 

CHAPTER  XI 
The  Training  of  Country  Teachers 

T-i  PAGE 

The  need  for  properly  prepared  country  teachers 252 

Necessity  for  the  special  training  of  country  teachers.  .  .   252 

Kind  of  special  training  needed  by  county  teachers 254 

Special   training   now   offered    for   country   teachers:    in 

high    schools 25  ^ 

In  county  normal  schools 256 

In  state  normal  schools 258 

The  new  spirit  of  country  teachers 273 

A  suggestive  outline   for  country  school  departments   in 

state  normal  schools 275 

Trained  teachers  not  the  only  need  for  solving  the  country 

school    problem 280 


CHAPTER  XII 

Country  School  Supervision 

Importance  of  country  school  supervision 281 

Difficulties    281 

Systems  of  rural  supervision  employed  in  the  United  States  886 

Methods  of  selecting  county  superintendents 287 

Qualifications   required  of  county  superintendents 288 

Increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  county  superintendency.  .  289 

The  proper  method  of  selecting  county  superintendents.  294 

Leadership  of  the  county  superintendent 295 

Inspiration  and  help  for  county  superintendents 296 

The  chief  need 298 

The  duty  of  teachers  to  county  superintendents 300 

Some    other    legislative    measures    needed    for    country 

schools    300 


/ 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XIII 
The  Country  Life  Movement 

PAGE 

Character  of  the  Country  Life  Movement 302 

Some  Developments  of  the  Country  Life  Movement 

Work  of  the  State  College  of  Agriculture 303 

Influence  of  machinery 305 

Business    organization 306 

Agricultural    legislation 306 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  South 307 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  East 309 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  West 309 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  Middle  West 310 

The  International  Institute  of  Agriculture 312 

The  Country  Life  Commission  and  its  work 312 

Needs  of  the  Country  Life  Movement 

Concreteness    313 

Federation  of  rural  forces 316 

Leadership    321 

Idealism    323 

Concluding   summary 326 


APPENDIX 

PAGE 

I.     Outline  of  a  course  in  country  school  teaching  for 

country  teachers 329 

11.     Outline  of  a  course  in  rural  sociology  for  country 

teachers    336 

III.  A  country  teacher's  schoolhouse  plan 340 

IV.  Furnishings  and  equipment  for  country  schools..   346 
V.     Educational  helps  and  sources  for  country  teachers  350 

VI.     A  workable  country  school  program 358 

VII.     Seatwork  in  country  schools  and  some  principles 

underlying    it 360 

VIII.     Pictures  that  portray  farm  life 363 

IX.     Some  country  life  literature 365 

X.     Country  school  music  and  farm  life  songs 368 

XI.     A  minimum  list  of  manual  training  tools  for  coun- 
try   schools 372 

XII.     A  minimum  equipment  for  the  teaching  of  do- 
mestic science  in  country  schools 373 

XIII.  A  selected  list  of  twenty-five  books  for  the  use  of 

country    teachers 374 

XIV.  Suggested  problems  of  country  school  teaching  for 

the  attack  of  individual  country  teachers....   376 

DIRECTORY  OF  RURAL  PROGRESS 384 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 388 

INDEX 399 


XVll 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 


Country  life  in  America 3 

Corn  is  king 4 

Mud-stuck  days  are  still  a  reality 5 

An  abandoned  country  church 8 

Friends'  Church,  Clear  Creek  Community,  Putnam  County.  Illinois.  11 

Diagram  of  a  country  community  center 15 

An   ideal    farm   home 20 

An  inferior  farm  home 24 

Office  in  a  farm  home 27 

Home  ]\Iakers'  School,  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana 30 

Domestic  science  in  the  country  school,  Macon  County,  Illinois 36 

Church    and    manse.    Rock    Creek    Community,    ^Menard    County, 

Illinois    41 

Play  in  the  Rock  Creek  Community 44 

Federated  church.  Proctor,  Vermont 49 

Exhibit  of  the   Presbyterian  Department  of  Church  and   Country 

Life 55 

County  work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 58 

The  DuPage  Presbyterian  Church,  Will  County,  Illinois 63 

Lecture  course  audience  at  the  DuPage  Church 66 

Oliver  H.  Kelley,  founder  of  the  Grange "^z 

Centerville  Grange  picnic,  Winnebago  County,  Illincls 75 

Farmers'  club,  Logan  County,  Illinois 79 

Magnolia  Grange  fair,  Putnam  County,  Illinois 82 

Harvesting  picnic,  farmers'  clubs  of  DeKalb  County,  Illinois 86 

Midsummer    farmers'    institute,    Illinois    College    of    Agriculture, 

Urbana    92 

Interurban  exhibit  cars  from  the  Illinois  College  of  Agriculture. ...  95 
Household   Science  Department  at  the   National  Corn  Exposition, 

Columbus,    Ohio,    191 1 98 

The  Grout  encampment  for  farm  boys 99 

Boys'  corn  class,  farmers'  institute,  Mercer  County,  Illinois 104 

The  road  problem 109 

A   French  highway 112 

Avenue  of  Trees.     Hobbema ii5 

xix 


XX  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

An  automobile  ravaging  a  road 120 

Marking  the  route  of  the  Iowa  River-to-River  Dragged  Road 124 

A   noble    sentinel 126 

A  properly  dragged  earth  road 128 

The  road  of  the  future 132 

The  country  school  as  a  community  center 135 

An  average  countr\'  school 137 

An  ancient  landmark  of  learning 139 

Harlem  Consolidated  School,  Winnebago  County.  Illinois 141 

Domestic  science  in  the  Harlem  Consolidated  School 144 

An  expensive  establishment 145 

School  float,  Harlem  Consolidated  School 147 

The  John  Swaney  Consolidated  School,  Putnam  County,  Illinois..   149 

Barn  and  janitor's  house  at  the  John  Swaney  School 150 

Teachers'  Cottage,  John  Swaney  School 151 

Stock  judging  class,  John  Swaney  School 152 

Horticultural  class  pruning  trees,  John  Swaney  School 153 

Baseball  field,  John  Swaney  School 154 

Girls'  Chorus,  John  Swaney  School 155 

Domestic    science    kitchen    and    chemical    laboratory    in    the    John 

Swaney    School 157 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  Swaney 159 

Track  team,  John  Swaney  School 160 

Map  of  Indiana  showing  extent  of  consolidation 161 

Consolidated  School,  Lewiston,  Minnesota 164 

Consolidated  School,  Enumclaw.  Washington 167 

The  old  and  the  new  in  Louisiana 169 

Consolidated   school   wagon 173 

Township  High  School,  Princeton,  Illinois 177 

Map  of  Olmsted  County.  Minnesota,  showing  proposed  consolidated 

districts    183 

School  garden,  John  Swaney  School 185 

On  the  campus,  John  Swaney  School 186 

A  country  school  prepared  for  community  leadership 191 

When  first  we  go  to  school 193 

Procuring  the  necessary  kindling 195 

Cedar  Oak  School,  the  scene  of  Miss  Mary's  endeavors 197 

Closing  day  picnic  in  District  23 201 

An  old  t}-pe  of  country  school  building 207 

A  new  t}-pe  of  country  school  building 211 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xxi 

PAGE 

Library  room,  Peru  School,  Macon  County,  Illinois 217 

Cultivating  minds  and  spirits  through  flower  gardens 224 

A  monarch  of  the  prairie 226 

A  disgrace  to  the  community 228 

Girls'  club  ready  for  the  Thanksgiving  minuet 231 

Chorus  cast,  Peru  School,  Macon  County,  Illinois 233 

Play    festival,    Harlem    Consolidated    School,    Winnebago    County, 

Illinois    235 

Agricultural  College  excursion,  Edgar  County,  Illinois 237 

Practical  Arithmetic 239 

A    sand-table    farm 243 

Country  school  gardening  in  Massachusetts 245 

The   Harvest — Training   school   children   of   the    Western   Illinois 

State   Normal   School 247 

Play-day  masque,  Illinois  State  Normal  University 251 

Teachers'  Training  School,  Dunn  County  Wisconsin 255 

Dramatization  of  Hiawatha,  Rural  Observation  School,  Kalamazoo, 

Michigan    259 

Country  teachers  at  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University 263 

Country   Training   School  of  the   Western   Illinois    State   Normal 

School  before  improvement 267 

Country   Training   School   of   the  Western   Illinois   State   Normal 

School   after   improvement 271 

First    annual    meeting    of    the    Country    Teachers'    Association    of 

Illinois,  Macomb,  July,   1908 277 

Full  of  difficulties  for  the  county  superintendent 283 

Manual  training  in  Whatcom  County,  Washington 286 

County  Superintendent  Jessie  Field,  Page  Count}^,  Iowa 291 

Complimentary  float  to  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern  of  Winnebago 

County,    Illinois 293 

School  directors'  convention,  Goodhue  County,  Minnesota 297 

A  subject  for  school  legislation 299 

Conference    of    Rural    Social    Workers,    College    of    Agriculture, 

Amherst,    Massachusetts 303 

The  cotton  harvester 305 

Dr.   Seaman  A.   Knapp 308 

Rural  Life  Conference,  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottesville 311 

National  Corn  Exposition,  Columbus,  Ohio,  February,  191 1 315 

Country  community  exhibit  displayed  at  the  Illinois  Federation  for 

Country  Life  Progress,  July,  1912 317 


xxii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  poetry  of  country  life 321 

The  end  of  day 325 

A  country  teacher's  schoolhouse  plan : 

Front    elevation 341 

Rear   elevation 341 

Right  side  elevation 342 

First  floor  plan 343 

Basement    plan 345 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE 
COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  FARAI  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION 

The  Problem  Stated.  There  is  an  American  farm  prob- 
lem. The  whole  nation  is  astir  with  it;  its  significance  is 
commonly  acknowledged;  and  remedies  for  its  solution  are 
proposed  on  every  hand.  In  the  interpretation  of  this  prob- 
lem, however,  opinions  differ. 

The  farm  problem  of  America  is  not,  as  is  sometimes 
asserted,  the  task  of  increasing  the  fertihty  of  the  soil,  of 
improving  staple  crops,  or  even  of  conserving  our  food,  for- 
ests, and  other  natural  resources.  It  is  not  the  problem  of  in- 
creasing the  skill  and  business  efficiency  of  the  modern  farmer ; 
nor,  as  he  himself  sometimes  thinks,  of  adding  to  his  store  of 
worldly  goods.  Neither  is  it  the  problem  of  making  country 
life  easy  and  comfortable,  though  this,  in  degree,  is  highly 
desirable.  All  these  are  constituent  parts  of  the  real  issue; 
they  have  their  bearing  and  relationship,  but  they  are  not  the 
problem  itself. 

The  most  serious  condition  of  present  country  life  is  the 
silent  but  startling  migration  of  the  rural  population  to  towns 
and  cities.  To  the  ambitious  country  boy  the  city  has  always 
proved  alluring.  It  seems  to  offer  a  larger  field  of  social 
activity  and  conquest.  That  this  conquest  is  for  the  few,  he 
has  usually  failed  to  realize,  and  has  mercilessly,  though  often 

1 


2  COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

successfully,  thrown  himself  into  the  thickest  of  the  fray, 
forgetful  and  unconscious  of  the  many  neglected  opportunities 
in  the  home  community.  This  inflowing  current  of  fresh 
blood  and  vigorous  strength  toward  our  great  commercial 
centers  has  had,  and  still  has,  its  place  in  our  national  develop- 
ment. In  New  England  and  other  over-populated  and  unpro- 
ductive agricultural  sections  it  has  even  proved  desirable. 
But  it  has  gone  too  far.  Rural  migration  no  longer  means 
only  the  occasional  shifting  of  a  few  brilliant  sons  to  the  city, 
as  formerly.  It  now  implies  the  uprooting  and  withdrawal  of 
whole  families  whose  members,  for  the  most  part,  represent 
the  highest  idealism  and  ambition  of  the  country  community. 
As  a  result,  leadership  has  been  extracted  from  rural  localities, 
agriculture  has  declined,  and  country  life  has  lost  prestige  both 
socially  and  economically.  Fortunately  we  are  now  in  the 
period  of  a  new  awakening,  when  the  tide  of  interest  begins 
to  ebb  from  the  rush  and  strife  of  the  city,  and  to  turn,  with 
relief  and  satisfaction,  back  to  the  country. 

The  problem  of  keeping  the  youth  of  the  present  genera- 
tion upon  the  farms  and  of  preparing  them  for  country  life 
in  its  fullest  and  richest  sense  is  an  issue  of  fundamental 
concern  in  our  national  welfare.  By  this  it  is  not  implied  that 
all  children  born  upon  the  farm  should  stay  there.  Few 
fallacies  could  be  more  wasteful  and  destructive  of  human 
efficiency  than  this.  In  this  age  of  specialists  country  children 
naturally  inclined  to  enter  the  so-called  "trades  and  profes- 
sions" should  have  the  opportunity.  Yet,  at  the  same  time, 
adequate  care  must  be  given  to  those  who  remain  upon  the 
land  if  we  are  to  maintain  an  efficient  class  of  citizens  in 
our  rural  communities  and  desirable  averages  in  our  national 
life. 

The  farm  problem,  then,  in  its  most  fundamental  aspects, 
is  the  problem  of  maintaining  a  standard  people  upon  our 
farms.     Or,  as  more  choicely  put  by  Professor  Liberty  Hyde 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION  o 

o 

Bailey,  it  is  the  problem  "of  developing  and  maintaining  on  our 
farms  a  civilization  in  full  harmony  with  the  best  American 
ideals."  When  this  end  is  attained,  all  other  issues  of  agri- 
culture and  country  life,  questions  of  education,  "of  better 
business,  better  farming,  and  better  living,"  will  obviously  find 
adjustment  as  a  matter  of  consequence.^ 


Country  Life  in  America 

Its  Significance.  That  the  farm  is  the  corner-stone  of 
our  national  prosperity  is  a  trite  but  true  estimate.  Since  the 
days  of  Cain,  farming  has  been  the  foundational  industry  of 
static  society.  It  matters  little,  all  worthy  politicians  to  the 
contrary,  whether  we  choose  a  Republican  or  a  Democrat  for 
the  next  president,  but  whether  we  have  enough  rain  to  mature 
the  corn,  wheat,  and  cotton  crops  spread  in  vast  acres  over 
our  bountiful  land  is  a  matter  of  universal  concern — one  that 
afifects  not  only  the  wealthiest  banker  and  the  shrewdest  broker 
but  the  most  ragged  newsboy  as  well.  "Corn  is  king,"  and  a 
monarch  who  never  resigns  his  golden  scepter. 

1  For  this  interpretation  of  the  rural  problem  and  much  of  the 
general  thought  of  this  chapter  readers  will  observe  an  indebtedness 
I  gladly  and  gratefully  acknowledge  to  President  Kenyon  L.  Butter- 
field  of  the  Massachusetts  College  of  Agriculture,  author  of  Chapters 
in  Rural  Progress  and  of  The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem, 


4     COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

The  true  significance  of  the  prosperity  of  country  life  is 
appreciated,  however,  only  when  we  reflect  that  one-third  of 
our  entire  population  gain  a  living  directly  from  the  soil,  and 
that  indirectly  all  depend  upon  it  for  the  sustenance  of  life. 
Whatever  affects  the  country  is  therefore  of  national  concern, 
not  only  because  of  the  material  dependence  of  society  upon 
farmers  but  because  of  the  social,  educational,  and  moral 
influence  of  so  large  a  percentage  of  the  general  population. 


"Corn  is  King" 


In  this  connection  the  hypothesis  that  rural  welfare  is  signifi- 
cant and  desirable  only  because  of  its  contribution  to  urban 
prosperity  demands  thorough  condemnation.  Farm  life  must 
become  adequate  for  its  own  sake,  and  the  sake  of  those  who 
live  it,  not  for  the  purpose  of  sending  the  city  more  or  better 
recruits  or  for  any  similar  reason.  The  city  has  long  pros- 
pered at  the  expense  of  the  country.  We  must  now  build  up  a 
country  life  that  shall  be  satisfactory  from  its  own  viewpoint. 
When  this  is  done  it  will  be  found  that  the  city  has  benefited 
also,  and  that  there  is  no  clash  between  urban  and  rural  wel- 
fare in  their  best  realizations. 

Cause:  Isolation  in  Country  Life.  In  the  last  analysis 
the  cause  of  most  of  the  difficulties  of  country  life  can  be  traced 
to  its  openness  and  isolation.  In  this  respect  country  life  in 
America  contrasts  strongly  with  that  of  Europe.  American 
farms  average  about  one  hundred  forty-five  acres,  and  homes 
are   often   a   mile   or   more   apart;    separated    in   many   sec- 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION  5 

tions  by  a  despondent  stretch  of  mud  and  mire.  In  Europe, 
on  the  other  hand,  land  holdings  are  small,  and  rural  homes 
practically  constitute  scattered  but  continuous  villages  con- 
nected by  good  hard  roads,  centuries  old.  In  America,  espe- 
cially during  the  winter  and  early  spring,  bad  roads  alone 
make  hermits  of  many  farm  families.  The  snow-bound  days 
pictured  by  Whittier  in  his  charming  idyl  are  no  longer  fre- 


Mud-stuck  Days  are  Still  a  Reality 


quent  occurrences,  but  less  poetic,  mud-stuck  days  are  still  a 
reality. 

Another  factor  of  this  isolation  not  to  be  disregarded  is  the 
fact  that  the  farm  home  is  almost  complete  in  itself.  Farmers 
produce  their  own  food  supply  and  can  exist  for  days  wholly 
cut  off  from  their  fellow-men.  In  case  of  severe  storms  or 
impassable  roads,  this  state  of  existence  may  be  continued 


6     COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

for  weeks,  especially  by  women,  and  some  families,  unfor- 
tunately, are  willing  to  tolerate  a  semi-exclusive  mode  of  life 
even  when  circumstances  become  more  favorable.  Physical 
isolation  and  the  economic  independence  of  the  farm  home  are 
thus  two  fundamental  causes  of  social  isolation  which,  in  turn, 
results  in  conditions  making  the  farm  situation,  as  a  whole, 
problematic.  The  effects  of  social  isolation  in  country  life  are 
manifested  in  various  ways. 

The  well-known  conservative  attitude  of  farmers  on  all 
new  undertakings  is  the  most  noticeable  of  these.  When  not 
carried  too  far,  this  tendency  is  commendable  as  an  attribute 
of  sane  level-headedness,  but  unfortunately  it  often  runs  to 
extreme  lengths  in  a  tenacious  hold  upon  outgrown  ideas. 
Conservatism  among  farmers  is  well  illustrated  by  the  hesi- 
tancy with  which  suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  the  coun- 
try school  are  often  received.  A  change  in  the  program,  text- 
books, or  furniture,  unless  tactfully  brought  about,  sometimes 
excites  the  opposition  of  the  whole  community.  That  such 
conditions  exist,  however,  is  not  surprising.  All  the  natural 
forces  of  country  life — seed-time  and  harvest,  seasonal  change, 
and  the  annual  cycle — tend  toward  quiet  and  routine,  and  so 
impress  themselves  upon  the  sub-consciousness  of  a  people 
governed  by  them  that  their  control  cannot  fail  to  influence 
character.  On  the  other  hand,  isolation  encourages  the  farmer 
toward  a  habit  of  deep  and  independent  thought  and  has  pro- 
duced some  of  our  most  gifted  thinkers. 

A  second  result  of  the  social  isolation  of  the  farm  is  mani- 
fested in  an  intense  radicalism  that  occasionally  sweeps 
through  farm  circles.  No  better  illustration  of  this  para- 
doxical outgrowth  can  be  cited  than  the  early  interest  mani- 
fested in  the  Grange  some  forty  years  ago.  This  organiza- 
tion was  first  taken  up  as  a  financial  craze,  and  enthusiastic 
farmers,  cutting  loose  from  all  moorings  of  precedent  and 
caution,   expected   to    sail    forth   on   a   wave   of   prosperity 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION      7 

founded    upon    implement   houses,    sugar    mills,    and    whole- 
sale  combines. 

The  tendency  toward  neighborhood  strife  is  a  third  accom- 
paniment of  rural  isolation.  Scarcely  a  farm  telephone  sys- 
tem in  the  country  has  been  installed  without  provoking 
local  friction.  Rural  jealousy  and  the  strong  inclination 
toward  indiscreet  gossip  are  accountable  for  many  of  the 
unhappy  relations  existing  in  some  communities.  In  more 
barbarous  and  primitive  settlements  this  tendency  is  easily 
recognized,  as  in  the  long-standing  feuds  of  mountain  regions. 

Another  outgrowth  of  these  conditions  is  the  existing,  though  . 
much  exaggerated,  provincialism  of  farmers.  Since  the  instal- 
lation of  telephones,  the  rural  delivery  of  mail,  and  improved 
methods  of  transportation  have  so  revolutionized  country  life, 
this  tendency  is  fast  disappearing.  Conditions  that  once  mer- 
ited the  appellations  of  "back-woods,"  ''hayseed,"  and  "coun- 
try," have  vanished  along  with  the  moss-back  farmer  in  blue 
overalls  and  slouch  hat.  That  provincialism  does  still  exist, 
however,  is  true.  And  nowhere  is  it  felt  more  keenly  than  in 
the  religious  attitude  of  some  farm  communities.  The  feel- 
ing often  manifested  toward  the  teaching  of  such  common 
scientific  theories  as  evolution  is  an  indication  of  this  pro- 
verbial "narrow-mindedness." 

A  fifth  and  most  far-reaching  effect  of  the  social  isolation 
of  country  life  is  the  lack  of  organization  among  farmers,' with 
an  accompanying  scarcity  of  leaders.  This  is  the  chief  cause 
of  the  failure  of  farm  hfe  in  so  far  as  it  has  failed.  There 
is  little  organized  procedure  in  the  country.  Rural  progress 
for  the  most  part  is  accidental  development  rather  than  con- 
stant, purposeful,  and  steady  growth.  Alore  attention  will  be 
given  to  the  seriousness  of  this  condition  later. 

Solution  of  the  Farm  Problem.  The  solution  of  the  farm 
problem — that  is,  the  holding  of  a  standard  class  of  people 
upon  the  land — will  be  accomplished  only  when  country  life  is 


8 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AXD  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


made  adequately  and  permanently  satisfying.  Partial  satisfac- 
tion, even  financial  prosperity,  does  not  suffice.  The  wealth- 
iest agricultural  states  show  even  greater  rural  depletion  dur- 
ing the  last  decade  than  poorer  sections.  In  Dlinois,  which 
ranks  first  in  farm  values,  rural  population  decreased  in  sixty- 
eight  counties  between 
1900  and  1910.  In 
Iowa,  the  total  rural 
population  decreased 
seven  per  cent  during 
the  same  period.  A 
significant  aspect  of 
this  shifting  of  farm- 
ers  is  the  rapid 
growth  of  tenantry 
and  landlordism.  For- 
ty per  cent  of  the 
farms  in  the  United 
States  are  now  oper- 
ated by  tenants.  De- 
serted churches,  poor 
schools,  broken  com- 
munities, and  ofttimes 
poor  farming,  all  de- 
An  Abandoned  Country  Church  clare  the  evils  of  this 

Located     in     a     tenant     community     in     Illinois.         cvQtf^m        Rllt   it   i'q   not 
There   are    twentv-one    other   deserted   country         :5_\  sn^iij.       jjul    il    is    iivjl 

^^Tarfd^^So^p^er^l^r^^'"'^'^'-     ^'"'"^'  ""'"'        pOSsiblc    tO    disCUSS    SO 

large  an  issue  here. 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  no  satisfying  rural  civilization  throughout 
the  history  of  agriculture  has  ever  been  constructed  upon  a 
system  of  tenantry  and  landlordism.  The  cornerstone  of  every 
successful  rural  social  order  is  that  land  shall  be  tilled  by  those 
who  own  and  cherish  it.  It  is  therefore  apparent  at  the  outset 
that  solving  the  farm  problem  means  holding  land  owners  in 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION  9 

the  country.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  make  country  hfe  as 
satisfying  as  that  of  the  town  or  city.  That  this  can  be  done 
is  exempHfied  in  many  country  neighborhoods,  but  nowhere 
better  than  in  the  Clear  Creek  community  in  Putnam  County, 
Ilhnois,  which  will  be  cited  here  for  purposes  of  illustration. 

Country  Community  Building.  In  this  community  there 
is  no  dissatisfaction,  no  moving  to  town,  and  practically  no 
rural  problem,  as  herein  defined.  The  people  of  the  Clear 
Creek  neighborhood,  with  but  two  or  three  exceptions,  are  all 
land  owners,  each  man  owning  only  what  land  he  can  per- 
sonally operate,  usually  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  sixty 
acres.  All  are  economically  prosperous  because  scientific 
farming  is  the  rule.  The  homes  of  the  community,  though  by 
no  means  magnificent,  are  comfortable  and  attractive,  and, 
like  the  farms,  carefully  planned  and  scientifically  managed. 
But  the  distinguishing  feature  of  this  neighborhood,  the  mag- 
net that  draws  and  holds  contentedly  about  it  some  of  the  most 
capable  men  and  women  in  the  state,  is  a  well-defined  and 
roundly-developed  community  center  consisting  of  a  consoli- 
dated school,  a  Grange,  and  a  church. 

This  school  with  its  beautiful  wooded  grounds  of  twenty- 
four  acres,  its  commodious,  well  equipped  building,  its  well 
trained  teaching  force,  and  its  excellent  course  of  study  w^orked 
out  in  terms  of  country  life  and  affording  instruction  through 
an  accredited  high  school,  has  attracted  the  attention  of  edu- 
cators and  country  life  workers  throughout  the  United  States. 
A  fuller  account  of  its  equipment  and  work  is  given  in  Chapter 
VIII.  All  that  need  be  said  here  is  that  the  John  Swaney 
Consolidated  School,  to  quote  a  committee  of  the  National 
Education  Association,  "is  probably  the  most  ideal  country 
school  in  the  United  States." 

Within  a  few  rods  of  the  school  building  stands  the  Grange 
hall,  where  twice  a  month  for  the  past  forty  years  Clear  Creek 
people  have  met  for  social  and  educational  purposes  and  have 


lO    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

discussed  questions  of  agriculture  and  country  life.^  To  the 
dominating  influence  of  the  Grange  more  than  to  any  other 
single  force  is  due  the  progress  that  marks  this  community. 
Grange  influence  has  developed  leadership,  has  sustained  a 
high  idealism  of  personal  integrity  and  social  responsibility, 
and  above  all,  has  fostered  the  spirit  of  cooperation  through 
which  this  idealism  has  been  worked  out  and  made  tangible  for 
community  benefit. 

But  the  highest  expression  of  personal  and  social  idealism 
in  the  Clear  Creek  neighborhood  is  found  in  the  little  plain 
"meeting-house."  This  church  of  early  Quaker  establishment 
is  a  true  community  institution,  demanding  neither  creeds  nor 
doctrines  and  preaching  religion  in  terms  of  country  life.  All 
who  seek  fellowship  with  God  through  magnifying  the  God- 
ship  of  men  and  cherishing  ''the  worth  of  the  native  earth" 
are  welcomed  to  its  membership. 

From  this  and  similarly  successful  instances  it  is  evident 
that  country  life  can  be  made  satisfying,  but  that  permanent 
rural  satisfaction  comes  only  through  the  harmonious  upbuild- 
ing of  the  country  community.  Good  schools,  churches,  effi- 
cient labor,  social  advantages,  and  all  the  attractions  that  draw 
farmers  to  the  town  or  city  are  the  result  of  community  effort. 
The  city,  it  is  commonly  agreed,  has  outstripped  the  country. 
In  the  last  analysis  this  predominance  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
greater  degree  of  social-consciousness,  or  community-minded- 
ness,  among  city  dwellers.  Farmers  as  a  class  are  intensely 
individualistic.  As  a  consequence  their  communities  are 
usually  poorly  developed  and  sustain  fewer  and  weaker  social 
institutions  than  are  found  in  cities.  Here  lies  the  crux  of  the 
whole  rural  situation.  Hence  the  significance  of  the  com- 
munity idea  in  country  life. 

Cooperation  the  Keynote  in  the  Solution  of  the  Farm 
Problem.     Community   building  requires   cooperation.     If 

1  For  a  fuller  account  of  this  Grange  see  Chapter  IV. 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION 


II 


the  community  idea  expresses  the  dominating  need  for  the 
reconstruction  of  country  Hfe,  cooperation,  as  most  students 
of  rural  social  life  concede,  then  becomes  the  keynote  in  the 
solution  of  the  farm  problem.  Efficient  social  institutions  and 
the  other  satisfactions  of  modern  life   which   draw   country 


Friends'  Church,  Clear  Creek  Community,  Putnam  County,  Illinois 

This  church  with  a  consolidated  school  and  a  Grange  constitutes  a  strong 

community  center 


people  to  towns  are  the  results  of  cooperative  effort.  To  bring 
these  satisfactions  to  the  country,  farmers  must  put  aside  small 
differences,  overcome  their  excessive  individualism,  and  con- 
sistently work  together  for  the  highest  good  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Cooperation  as  used  here  implies  four   fundamental  social 


12    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

forces^  which  must  become  operative  in  the  construction  of 
every  community.  These  are  (a)  education,  (b)  sociahzation, 
(c)  organization,  and  (d)   idealism. 

Agencies  for  the  Upbuilding  of  the  Country  Community. 
As  mediums  of  cooperation  for  setting  these  forces  in  mo- 
tion appropriate  agencies  are  available  in  the  country  com- 
munity. These  agencies  may  be  roughly  classified  into  two 
types :  rural  social  institutions,  and  material  means  of  rural 
socialization.  Chief  among  the  institutions  serving  this  end 
are  (a)  the  home,  (b)  the  state,  (c)  the  church,  (d)  the 
farm  organization,  and  (e)  the  school.  Among  the  material 
means  of  rural  socialization  may  be  cited  telephones,  mail  de- 
livery, electric  car  lines,  and  especially  roads,  which  have  a 
tremendous  influence  upon  rural  progress  and  happiness.  The 
reconstruction  of  the  country  community  must  therefore  begin 
with  the  redirection  and  regeneration  of  these  institutions 
upon  which  community  welfare  depends. 

Chief  Functions  and  Needs  of  Rural  Social  Institutions. 
The  initial  step  in  the  regeneration  of  rural  social  institutions 
is  to  determine  their  chief  functions  and  needs.  In  this  attempt 
the  following  brief  statement,  based  largely  upon  President 
Butterfield's  analysis,  is  offered : 

Home  and  family.  The  home  as  the  fundamental  institu- 
tion of  society  is  always  of  first  importance.  Its  primary  func- 
tion is  to  provide  proper  nurture  for  the  young.  A  secondary 
function  of  the  home,  now  too  rapidly  disappearing,  is  its 
share  in  the  education  of  children.  These  functions  are  better 
fulfilled  by  the  country  home  than  by  the  town  or  city  home, 
though  much  improvement  is  still  possible  in  both.  The  chief 
needs  of  the  country  home  from  the  community  point  of  view 
are:  (i)  vocational  education  on  the  part  of  women,  affording 
training  in  home  making;  (2)  the  participation  of  women  in 

1  See  Butterfield's  The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem, 
Chapter  II. 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION  13 

community  activities  and  outside  affairs;  and  (3)  the  decrease 
of  household  labor  so  that  some  of  the  time  and  strength 
of  women  may  be  devoted  to  community  work.  A  fuller 
discussion  of  this  theme  is  given  in  the  succeeding  chapter. 

State  and  government.  The  chief  function  of  the  state  in 
upbuilding  the  local  country  community  is  to  insure  legisla- 
tive protection  by  making  and  enforcing  appropriate  laws, 
and  to  render  industrial  aid  and  class  service,  as  in  the  main- 
tenance of  state  boards  of  agriculture,  highway  departments, 
and  agricultural  extension  work.  The  most  pressing  needs  in 
this  line  as  revealed  within  the  immediate  farm  locality  are 
for  more  just  and  equitable  legislation  and  an  increased  feeling 
of  civic  responsibility  on  the  part  of  farmers.  In  this  con- 
nection it  should  be  acknowledged  that  for  the  injustice  that 
obtains  in  this  field  farmers  have  themselves  chiefly  to  blame. 
Only  when  countrymen  make  proper  and  effective  use  of  the 
ballot  will  rural  interests  receive  due  legislative  attention. 

Church.  "The  church,"  according  to  President  Butterfield, 
"touches  the  highest  point  in  the  redirection  of  rural  life,"  its 
function  being  "to  perpetuate  religious  idealism  in  personal, 
family,  and  community  life."  A  primary  need  of  the  church 
for  realizing  this  large  responsibility  is  to  gain  the  com- 
munity attitude.  By  this  is  meant  service  and  a  feeling  of 
responsibility  for  all  in  the  community  rather  than  for  a  select 
following  of  members.  Other  important  needs  of  the  country 
church  are  the  application  of  the  principle  of  federation  and  an 
interpretation  of  religion  in  terms  of  agriculture.  Further  ref- 
erence will  be  made  to  these  points  in  a  later  chapter. 

Voluntary  farm  organization.  Lender  this  heading  are  in- 
cluded farmers'  institutes,  granges,  farmers'  clubs,  business 
cooperations,  and  all  other  organizations  initiated  by  farmers. 
The  chief  common  function  of  these  voluntary  associations  is 
to  conserve  class  power.  Organizations  of  this  type  are  good 
or  bad,  according  as  their  motives  lead  to  the  selfish  or  the 


14 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


altruistic  conservation  of  class  power.  A  fundamental  need  of 
most  voluntary  farm  organizations  is  for  the  community  atti- 
tude. Both  the  farmers'  institute  and  the  Grange  illustrate 
this  need.  The  farmers'  institute  does  not  generally  appre- 
ciate the  significance  of  the  social  side  of  farm  life,  while  the 
Grange  usually  seeks  to  serve  merely  its  own  membership 
rather  than  all  who  live  in  the  community.  A  second  special 
need  bearing  upon  the  success  of  voluntary  farm  organiza- 
tions is  for  increased  publicity  and  attention.  The  farmers' 
institute  reaches  but  one  farmer  out  of  twenty-five,  while  thou- 
sands of  country  people  have  never  heard  of  the  Grange. 

School.  The  primary  function  of  the  school  is  education. 
But  since  "all  difficulties,"  according  to  the  Country  Life  Com- 
mission, ''resolve  themselves  in  the  end  into  a  question  of 
education,"  it  follows  as  a  logical  corollary  that  the  school 
may  serve  as  a  chief  immediate  agency  for  upbuilding  the 
country  community  and  making  country  life  satisfying.  The 
peculiar  advantages  and  needs  of  the  school  for  institutional 
leadership  to  this  end  will  constitute  the  basis  of  a  later 
chapter.  (See  Chapter  VII.)  It  should  be  clear  at  this  point, 
however,  that  the  school  can  inaugurate  progress  through  other 
institutions  and  along  various  lines.  Through  a  proper  atti- 
tude and  efficient  teaching  the  school  can  induce  farmers'  insti- 
tute attendance,  can  help  establish  granges  and  farmers'  clubs, 
start  campaigns  for  road  improvement,  impress  the  necessity 
of  a  scientific  agriculture,  and  even  promote  a  broader  and 
more  effective  religion.  It  can,  in  brief,  educate,  socialize, 
organize,  and  idealize,  thus  setting  in  motion  the  four 
fundamental  social  forces  of  the  rural  community. 

Overlapping  of  Agencies  in  Function  and  Effort.  From 
the  preceding  analysis  it  is  apparent  that  no  one  institution 
expresses  a  particular  or  single  social  force,  but  that  all  over- 
lap in  function  and  efTort  and  participate  more  or  less  fully 
in   the   processes   of   educating,    socializing,   organizing,   and 


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Diagram  of  a  Country  Community  Center 


Including   school,    church,    town    hall,    and   industrial   plant.      Reproduced  here 
from  Cix'cular  84,   Office  of  Experiment  Stations 


l6    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

idealizing.  This  duplication  and  overlapping  necessitates  a 
working  harmony  among  the  different  social  agencies  of  the 
country  community.  To  promote  this  spirit  of  harmony  the 
federative  idea  must  be  applied. 

Federation  of  Community  Agencies.  By  federation  is 
meant  the  cooperation  and  concerted  action  of  rural  social 
agencies  for  community  progjess.  Such  cooperation  on  the 
part  of  rural  institutions  and  forces  is  desirable  not  only 
because  of  their  functional  overlapping  but  because  of  the 
unity  and  magnitude  of  the  rural  problem.  As  already  shown, 
the  farm  problem  is  one  of  many  aspects  dealing  with  the 
whole  life  of  a  social  group  and  consequently  requiring  varied 
viewpoints.  No  one  institution  can  do  all.  The  church,  the 
school,  the  home,  the  farmers'  organization — each  has  a  special 
task  which  no  other  agency  can  perform  equally  well.  For 
this  reason  the  work-share  of  each  institution  should  be  care- 
fully defined  and  individual  programs  of  action  developed. 
This  necessitates  the  getting-together,  or  federation,  of  com- 
munity agencies  and  country  life  workers.  Every  division  of 
territory,  including  not  only  the  local  community  and  the 
township,  but  the  county,  the  state,  and  even  the  nation,  per- 
haps, may  well  inaugurate  the  federative  idea  and  hold  occa- 
sional conferences  on  country  life  in  which  the  viewpoints  of 
the  school,  church.  Grange,  farmers'  institute,  business  organ- 
ization, road  association,  and  all  other  rural  agencies  are  repre- 
sented. The  great  need  is  for  workers  and  institutions  which 
see  the  whole  problem,  and  in  this  way  only  can  a  complete 
vision  be  gained.  This  book  is  chiefly  an  attempt  to  inculcate 
the  federative  idea  into  the  country  school  and  to  show  country 
teachers  their  relation  to  other  fields.  Further  reference  to  the 
development  of  the  federation  movement  is  made  in  the  last 
chapter. 

Platform.     To  summarize  briefly  and  forecast  the  trend 


THE  FARM  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  SOLUTION  17 

and  contribution  of  this  volume,  the  following  platform  for 
the  improvement  of  country  life  is  offered : 

The  fundamental  problem  of  country  life  is  the  problem 
of  keeping  a  standard  people  upon  our  farms. 

The  solution  of  this  problem  is  to  be  realised  through  making 
country  life  adequately  and  permanently  satisfying. 

Country  life  can  be  made  adequately  satisfying  only  through 
the  upbuilding  of  the  country  community.  To  solve  the  farm 
problem  attention  must  therefore  be  directed  to  community 
building. 

The  chief  agencies  for  community  building  are  the  home,  the 
state,  the  church,  the  farm  organization,  and  the  school. 

Of  these,  the  school,  because  it  is  the  agency  of  education, 
and  because  the  zchole  farm  problem  is  largely  a  matter  of 
education,  is  best  fitted  for  immediate  institutional  leadership, 
and  most  capable  of  initiating  rural  social  progress.  The 
school,  in  other  words,  makes  the  best  and  most  generally 
available  center  for  the  upbuilding  of  the  country  community. 

In  realizing  this  opportunity  the  school  is  confronted  by 
several  vital  needs.  The  chief  of  these  are  a  reorganization 
of  the  rural  educational  system  upon  the  principle  of  consoli- 
dation, and,  above  all,  well  and  specially  trained  teachers. 

A  most  direct  attack  upon  the  country  life  problem  may 
therefore  be  made  through  the  preparation  of  teachers  for 
country  school  service. 

Succeeding  chapters  will  deal,  first,  with  the  most  impor- 
tant social  institutions  and  agencies  of  the  local  rural  com- 
munity, and,  later,  with  some  particular  social  aspects  and 
needs  of  the  country  school. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FARM  HOME 

The  Farm  Home  as  an  Agency  for  Country  Life 
Progress.  Though  the  school,  as  just  stated,  may  be  the 
most  influential  agency  working  toward  the  upbuilding  of  farm 
life,  the  home,  as  the  foundational  institution  of  society,  is 
evidently  the  most  fundamental.  Even  in  the  city,  where  the 
complexity  of  life  has  robbed  it  of  many  of  its  primal  func- 
tions, the  home  is  still  preeminent.  In  the  country  this  is 
especially  true.  The  farm  home  is  the  center  of  all  interests ; 
it  is  the  heart  of  the  whole  farm.  Vocationally,  this  is  neces- 
sarily so.  Though  much  has  gone  from  it  in  recent  years, 
the  farm  home  is  still  more  complete  in  an  industrial  sense 
than  any  other  institution  of  our  modern  social  order.  For 
many  of  the  actual  necessities  of  life  it  is  practically  self- 
sustaining.  But  this  industrial  self-sufficiency  of  the  farm 
home  has  submerged  its  social  limitations.  It  has  perpetu- 
ated influences  both  good  and  bad,  making  farmers  as  a  class 
not  only  independent  and  self-reliant  but  often  conservative 
and  narrow.  Above  all,  it  has  fostered,  in  many  cases,  an 
unfortunate  type  of  isolated,  unsocial  existence,  resulting  in 
unfavorable  conditions  which  it  will  require  years  of  earnest 
effort  to  alleviate. 

But  socially,  also,  though  less  apparent,  the  farm  home  is 
the  focus  of  interest.  All  social  movements  in  any  way  re- 
lated to  the  welfare  of  country  living  must  be  rooted  in  the 
home.  Its  problems  are  all-inclusive.  The  school,  the  church, 
the  Grange,  and  the  farmers'  institute,  to  gain  life  and  perma- 

18 


THE  FARM  HOME 


19 


nency,  must  establish  vital  connections  with  it  and  consider 
its  particular  problems.  The  home,  in  other  words,  absorbs 
the  efforts  of  all  other  socializing  agencies  and  redirects  these 
efforts  into  the  lives  of  those  for  whom  it  is  maintained.  The 
influence  of  home  life  upon  children  is  especially  significant  in 
this  connection.  The  tendencies  and  ideals  of  thought  and 
action  acquired  in  the  home  during  early  childhood  never 
quite  forsake  an  individual.  "There  can  be  found  no  better 
nursery  for  the  ideal  of  social  progress,"  says  Mrs.  Ellen  H. 
Richards,  "than  the  home  life  of  the  farm."  The  question  to 
be  considered  here,  then,  is  the  determination  of  the  efficiency 
of  the  farm  home  as  an  agency  for  social  progress.  Are  the 
majority  of  farm  homes  as  good  nurseries  for  such  progress 
as  they  may  become?  If  not,  what  can  be  done  to  make 
them  so? 

Present  Conditions  in  Farm  Homes.  For  the  purpose  of 
this  discussion  farm  homes  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 
average,  ideal,  and  inferior. 

Average  farm  homes.  Undoubtedly,  taken  as  a  class,  no 
homes  contribute  more  to  the  vigor  and  wholesomeness  of  our 
national  life  than  our  farm  homes.  Nevertheless  it  is  well 
for  farmers,  and  all  others,  to  recognize  that  vast  improve- 
ment can  be  made  in  the  present  order  of  country  living,  and 
that  the  majority  of  farm  homes  will  bear  much  further  study. 
This  study  must  begin  on  the  physical  side.  Only  through  cor- 
recting the  inconveniences  of  the  farmhouse,  using  labor 
saving  machinery,  and  instituting  a  better  system  of  household 
management,  can  the  country  housewife  further  the  higher 
interests  of  her  family,  and  promote  that  idealism  which  char- 
acterizes true  home-making. 

The  majority  of  farmhouses  are  poorly  planned.  The  whole 
general  plan  of  the  house  in  many  cases  is  faulty,  and  the 
furniture  is  poorly  selected  and  arranged.  The  kitchen,  being 
the  workshop  of  the  house,  should  receive  special  attention 


20 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


in  planning,  but  in  most  farmhouses  it  is  particularly  incon- 
venient. Often  one  large  room,  that  might  better  be  made  into 
two,  serves  the  purposes  of  both  dining-room  and  kitchen.  Fre- 
quently there  is  no  sink  or  other  provision  for  running  water. 
Usually  all  the  cooking,  even  in  summer,  is  done  over  a  big, 
hot  range.  The  living-room  and  the  bedrooms  also  might 
often    be    made    far    more    labor-saving.      The    heavy    car- 


An  Ideal  Farm  Home 


pets,  curtains,  and  draperies  with  which  these  rooms  are 
usually  furnished  in  country  houses  are  not  only  unsanitary 
but  labor-producing.  Frequently  the  lack  of  sufficient  light 
and  air  throughout  the  house  breeds  moths,  pests,  and  dis- 
ease, and  adds  to  the  work  of  the  housekeeper.  All  these 
inconveniences  add  hours  of  drudgery  to  the  work  of  country 
women  and  consume  time  that  might  otherwise  be  spent  in 
enjoying  some  of  the  richer  and  more  permanent  experiences 
of  life. 


THE  FARM  HOME  21 

Sanitation  demands  far  more  attention  also.  The  most 
harmful  of  the  unsanitary  practices  perpetuated  upon  the  farm 
surround  the  house  where  conditions  for  healthful  livine 
should  be  most  favorable.  Kitchen  waste  is  often  allowed  to 
stand  near  the  door  in  ill-smelling  receptacles;  back  yards 
are  poorly  kept;  and  flies  infest  the  house,  polluting  food  in 
a  most  dangerous  way.  Dust-catching  furnishings  are  still 
too  common  and  the  disease-breeding  properties  of  dust  too 
little  heeded.  Sanitary  bathrooms  with  modern  conveniences 
are  not  yet  found  in  the  majority  of  farmhouses,  and  conse- 
quently standards  of  personal  cleanliness  are  lowered.  In 
many  homes  a  tightly  barricaded  parlor  is  guardedly  cher- 
ished at  the  sacrifice  of  a  bathroom,  and  it  is  evident  that 
the  question  of  relative  values,  as  well  as  that  of  money, 
becomes  a  factor  in  the  reconstruction  of  farmhouses.  Out- 
side sanitary  neglect  of  the  whole  farm  further  complicates 
the  problem  of  household  sanitation  in  the  country.  Barns 
are  frequently  too  close  to  the  house  and  their  improper 
care  is  conducive  to  the  breeding  of  flies.  Outdoor  toilets  are 
at  best  repulsive  things,  and  general  neglect  makes  them  one 
of  the  most  serious  sanitary  problems  of  the  farm.  Wells, 
unless  rigidly  guarded,  are  often  found  to  be  absorbing  the 
impurities  of  underground  drainage,  while  swampy  land,  open 
rain  barrels,  and  standing  pools  that  are  never  kerosened, 
form  excellent  incubators  for  mosquitoes.  The  too-common 
practice  of  feeding  carcasses  to  hogs  and  of  leaving  dead 
animals  unburied  is  another  most  revolting  and  unnecessary 
infringement  upon  the  laws  of  public  sanitation  and  health. 

But  of  all  neglect  about  the  farm  home  none  is  more  inex- 
cusable than  poor  ventilation.  It  would  seem  that  in  the 
country,  where  God's  w^hole  out-of-doors  calls  to  man,  no 
blessing  could  be  so  persistently  rejected  as  are  air  and  sun- 
shine in  many  rural  households.  Among  farmers,  in  this 
case  as  in  several  others,  reform  is  entering  through  the  barn 


22    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

door,  and  after  dairy  cows  and  horses  are  well  provided  for, 
attention  will  be  shifted  to  the  house  and  its  inmates,  and 
eventually  some  one  will  remember  the  country  school.^ 

Social,  educational,  and  cultural  conditions,  which  for  con- 
venience will  be  grouped  here  under  the  general  term  spiritual- 
king  influences,  have  also  improved  greatly  in  farm  homes 
during  the  last  decade,  but  are  even  yet  far  from  what  might 
be  enjoyed.  There  are  still  too  many  homes  where  the 
local  newspaper  represents  the  chief  literary  contact  with  the 
world ;  where  neighborhood  gossip,  petty  if  not  malicious,  is 
the  chief  topic  of  conversation;  and  where  the  questionable 
party  or  dance  and  the  Saturday  trip  to  town  represent  the 
usual  social  diversions.  In  too  many  farm  homes,  even  in  this 
day  of  rich  and  varied  opportunity,  money  is  the  god  of  life 
and  drudgery  its  constant  companion. 

Ideal  farm  homes.  The  country  home  shown  here  as  a 
type  of  the  ideal  farm  home  happens  to  be  located  in  Illinois, 
but  its  counterpart  may  be  seen  in  any  good  agricultural 
section.  Architecturally  this  house  is  well  planned  and  con- 
veniently arranged.  This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  farmer 
and  his  wife  planned  it  themselves,  basing  their  demands  upon 
personal  experience  and  the  laws  of  science.  The  new  build- 
ing material,  concrete,  which  is  probably  destined  to  cause 
many  reforms  in  farm  construction  during  the  next  few 
years,  has  been  used  for  the  walls  of  the  house.  Particular 
care  has  been  taken  to  keep  the  exterior  appearance  simple 
and  in  harmony  with  its  natural  setting  and  the  purpose  for 
which  a  farmhouse  is  designed.  The  general  plan  of  the 
house  shows  the  highest  degree  of  thoughtfulness  and  care. 

1  Professor  E.  H.  King  of  the  State  Agricultural  College,  Madison, 
Wisconsin,  has  issued  a  little  book  treating  this  vital  question  of  ven- 
tilation for  dwelling-houses,  barns,  and  schoolhouses,  which  should 
be  placed  in  every  country  school  library,  and  might  be  read  with 
profit  by  every  member  of  the  farmer's  family.  For  publishers  and 
cost  see  bibliography  of  this  book,  Section  4. 


THE  FARM  HOME  23 

Not  only  matters  of  convenience  but  those  of  art  and  beauty, 
as  applied  through  interior  finish  and  decoration,  have  received 
special  consideration.  Telephones,  gas  lights,  and  running 
water,  city  conveniences  that  have  come  to  the  country  and 
come  to  stay,  add  the  finishing  touches  to  this  beautiful  country 
home. 

The  same  thought  and  study  manifested  in  the  planning 
of  this  house  can  be  traced  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
grounds  and  the  general  management  of  the  whole  farm. 
The  yard  is  large,  but  simply  planted  and  well  kept.  Fields, 
barns,  barn-lots,  and  farm  buildings  all  show  the  expedient 
control  of  science,  while  mowed  roads  and  trimmed  hedges 
suggest  an  innate  love  of  respectability  and  order  in  the  make- 
up of  the  farmer.  The  point  of  emphasis  in  the  study  of 
this  particular  home,  however,  is  the  fact  that  the  farmer  and 
his  wife  are  self-educated,  having  lived  their  youth  before  the 
days  of  special  training,  and  that  all  this  richness  and  fulness 
of  life  are  maintained  on  a  quarter  section  of  land.  True,  the 
land  is  very  productive,  but  much  of  its  fertility  is  owing  to 
scientific  control.  The  possibilities  of  applied  science  in  Amer- 
ican agriculture  are  scarcely  realized  yet  even  in  dreams. 

Inferior  farm  homes.  Standing  in  sharp  contrast  to 
farm  homes  of  the  average  and  ideal  types  are  the  inferior 
homes.  These  are  to  be  found  here  and  there  in  every  com- 
munity, no  matter  how  progressive,  and  their  number  is  very 
much  larger  than  commonly  thought.  Such  homes  are  not 
often  found  among  land-owners,  but  rather  among  the  more 
shiftless  class  of  tenants  and  in  the  overflow  of  humanity  on 
the  outskirts  of  cities  and  large  towns.  They  are  to  the 
country  what  tenements  are  to  the  city,  and  their  lot  is  appeal- 
ingly  pitiful  since  land  values  have  gone  so  high.  Their  pres- 
ence suggests  ''the  country  slum"  sometimes  mentioned  in 
recent  literature,  and  the  hopeless  despondency  and  fatalism 
of  country  life  is  nowhere  more  apparent  than  within  their 


24 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


walls.  Though  not,  in  most  cases,  a  product  of  rural  forces 
alone,  nor  particularly  characteristic  of  country  life,  the 
responsibility  for  the  care  of  these  homes  is  upon  rural  social 
institutions  and  rests  most  heavily  upon  the  school.  Among 
farmers  little  personal  charity  is  tolerated,  but  it  is  time, 
nevertheless,  for  more  decided  action  for  the  betterment  of 
this  element  of  the  rural  population.     The  whole  problem  of 


An  Inferior  Farm  Home 

A  rented  farm,  the  owner  living  in  a  city  forty  miles  away.     Land  valued  at 

$250  per  acre 

such  improvement,  however,  is  based  largely  upon  the  adjust- 
ment of  the  farm  labor  problem,  which  cannot  be  further 
discussed  here. 

The  Improvement  of  Farm  Home  Life.  The  immediate 
need  for  the  improvement  of  farm  home  life  is  for  the  better 
control  and  decrease  of  household  labor.  This  in  turn  calls 
for  the  better  planning  and  reconstruction  of  farmhouses  and 


THE  FARM  HOME  25 

the  vocational  education  of  country  women.  In  this  way 
only  can  the  time  and  energy  of  farmers'  wives  be  conserved 
for  participation  in  community  affairs  and  the  spiritualization 
of  home  life.  Household  drudgery  is  unquestionably  the  chief 
cause  of  anv  lack  of  idealism  and  social-mindedness  among- 
country  women.  Four  important  needs  for  the  improvement 
of  farm  home  life  suggested  here,  then,  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  decrease  of  household  labor  as  effected  through 
the  remodeling  of  farmhouses,  the  use  of  labor-saving  ma- 
chinery, and  the  practice  of  an  improved  system  of  household 
management. 

2.  The  vocational  education  of  farm  women,  preparing  for 
home-making  in  its  fullest  sense. 

3.  The  participation  of  country  women  in  community 
affairs. 

4.  The   spiritualizing  and   idealizing  of   farm  home  life. 

The  Decrease  of  Household  Labor.  The  necessity  of  re- 
ducing drudgery  in  the  farm  home  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized.  No  other  single  issue  has  more  bearing  upon 
rural  depletion  and  the  general  farm  problem.  The  difficulty 
here,  however,  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of  decreasing  the 
quantity  of  labor,  since  this  cannot  be  done  beyond  a  certain 
limit,  as  of  securing  increased  returns  from  the  amount  of 
energy  expended.  In  this  connection  the  remodeling  of  farm- 
houses requires  much  attention.  This  subject  cannot  be  treated 
in  detail  in  a  book  of  this  character.^  But  from  common 
observation  it  is  evident  that  farmhouses  can  often  be  so 
rearranged  and  refurnished  that  the  saving  of  time  and  drudg- 
ery thus  made  possible  will  bring  about  a  revolution  in  the 
character  of  the  home  life.  The  possibilities  of  farmhouse 
architecture  to  this  end  are  well  revealed  in  the  following  quo- 

1  The  remodeling  of  an  old-fashioned  farm  house  has  been  well 
worked  out  by  a  farmer's  wife  and  described  in  a  little  book,  The 
Healthful  Farmhouse,  which  is  listed  in  the  bibhography  of  this  book, 
Section  4. 


26    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

tations  from  an  address  by  Dean  L.  H.  Bailey,  given  before 
the  students  of  Cornell  Agricultural  College  in  19 lo. 

What  a  farm  residence  should  be.  By  way  of  concrete  suggestions, 
I  will  throw  my  statements  into  classified  paragraphs.  These  sugges- 
tions apply  to  common  farmhouses,  rather  than  to  the  estates  of 
country  gentlemen. 

(a)  The  farm  residence  should  fit  the  farm  country.  The  house 
should  be  broad  and  low  rather  than  narrow  and  tall.  We  need  a 
type  of  farm  architecture  that  seems  to  grow  out  of  farming  condi- 
tions. That  is,  the  structure  must  look  like  a  farmhouse  rather  than 
like  a  townhouse. 

(b)  The  house  should  be  very  simple  in  its  general  plan  and  con- 
struction. This  is  true  of  all  houses,  but  particularly  of  country  houses. 
The  farmhouse  should  be  condensed,  whether  it  is  large  or  small.  The 
beauty  of  a  building  lies  not  in  its  external  ornamentation,  but  in  its 
proportions,  its  fitness  to  conditions,  and  in  the  materials  of  which  it  is 
constructed. 

(c)  The  ordinary  farmhouse  should  have  a  very  simple  roof  scheme, 
with  as  few  valleys  and  peaks  and  flashings  as  possible.  The  beauty  of 
the  house  should  lie  in  its  dignified  and  simple  sky  lines  rather  than  in 
its  complex  and  broken  features. 

(d)  The  house  should  be  planned  to  save  steps  to  the  utmost.  The 
kitchen,  dining-room,  woodshed,  and  cellar  should  all  be  within  easy 
reach  of  one  another.  So  far  as  possible,  the  rooms  that  are  daily 
used  together  or  between  which  there  is  very  much  travel,  particularly 
on  the  part  of  the  housewife,  should  be  on  the  same  floor,  with  no 
steps  up  and  down.  We  should  so  plan  a  house  that  the  woman  may  be 
able  to  save  much  of  her  energy  for  other  activities  than  merely  those 
of  housekeeping. 

(e)  The  house  should  be  so  planned  and  made  that  it  can  be  easily 
cleaned.  This  means  an  absence  of  all  elaborate  spindle  work,  filigree, 
and  also  of  heavy  and  upholstered  hangings  in  the  furnishings.  Now 
that  we  are  appreciating  the  relation  of  dust  to  health,  we  must  take 
a  new  attitude  toward  the  construction  and  the  furnishing  of  residences. 

(f)  The  house  should  be  constructed  or  remodeled  with  the  idea  of 
applying  power  to  some  of  the  household  work,  as  to  the  laundry, 
pumping,  eventually  to  the  cleaning  of  the  rooms,  and  to  other  labor. 
We  have  been  applying  power  to  the  work  of  the  farm  and  the  barn, 
but  we  have  not  adapted  it  to  any  great  extent  to  the  work  of  the 
house  itself. 


THE  FARM  HOME 


27 


(g)  Every  modern  house  should  have  water  running  into  it  and  out 
of  it.  Within  twenty-five  years  every  good  farm  residence,  and  even 
many  tenant  houses,  will  be  as  well  provided  with  water  supply  facili- 
ties as  are  city  houses. 


Office  in  a  Farm  Home 

When  farming  is  regarded  and  managed  as  a  business  industry,  offices  will  be 

common  in  farmhouses 

(h)  The  ordinary  farmhouse  must  be  planned  in  such  a  way  that  the 
members  of  the  family  can  do  the  housework.  I  am  sure  that  in  many 
cases  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  work  of  keeping  house  by  at  least 
one-quarter  or  even  one-third  if  the  house  plan  is  carefully  studied 
with  this  idea  in  mind. 


28    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

(i)  You  all  know  that  most  of  the  unexpected  visitors  to  a  farm- 
house go  to  the  back  door  or  side  door.  This  means  that  the  back  of 
the  house  is  to  be  as  highly  developed  in  some  respects  as  the  front. 
Perhaps  it  will  mean  in  the  end  that  there  really  is  no  '"back"  to  the 
house  at  all,  and  that  the  establishment  shall  "face"  all  ways  and  have 
no  unkept  back  yard. 

(j)  The  house  must  be  provided  with  ample  storage  space.  Gro- 
ceries are  often  bought  in  quantity.  The  winter's  supplies  are  "put 
down"  in  the  cellar.  Ordinarily,  the  larger  part  of  this  storage  is  in 
the  cellar  or  the  attic.  This  necessitates  many  steps.  It  is  a  question 
whether  a  good  deal  of  this  material  would  not  better  be  stored  on  the 
first  floor  with  a  place  specially  designed  for  it,  like  an  enlarged  closet. 

(k)  The  first  floor  and  the  cellar  are  the  centers  of  the  family  activ- 
ity. The  members  of  the  family  spend  much  of  their  time  out  of  doors. 
This  means  that  the  first  floor  should  not  be  approached  by  high  steps 
from  the  outside,  and  also  that  washrooms  and  other  service  rooms 
should  be  on  this  floor  and  easy  of  access,  and  preferably  near  the 
farm-side  entrance. 

(1)  When  additions  are  placed  on  an  old  house,  care  should  be  taken 
to  have  them  match  the  style  of  the  original.  If  left  to  the  whim  of 
the  ordinary  carpenter,  additions  to  residences  are  not  likely  to  present 
a  suitable  appearance. 

The  use  of  labor-saving  machinery  in  farmhouses  is  now  so 
fully  discussed  on  every  hand  that  extended  comment  here 
is  unnecessary.  But  the  opportunity  thus  afforded  of  refer- 
ring to  some  sources  of  information  on  this  point  will  be 
improved.  A  recent  bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, entitled  Modern  Conveniences  for  the  Farm  Home,  and 
another,  entitled  Possibilities  of  the  Country  Home,  written  by 
Mrs.  Eugene  Davenport,  of  Urbana,  Illinois,  from  whom  it 
may  be  procured,  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every  farm 
housewife.  Both  contain  helpful  advice  concerning  the  best 
and  latest  farmhouse  appliances.  Of  all  literature  yet  issued 
upon  the  farm  home,  however,  none  is  more  valuable  than 
the  series  of  bulletins  for  farmers'  wives  put  out  by  the 
Cornell  College  of  Agriculture  at  Ithaca,  New  York.    The  only 


THE  FARM  HOME  29 

regret  concerning  this  splendid  series  is  that  they  are  restricted 
in  distribution  to  the  state  of  New  York. 

A  more  efficient  system  of  household  management  is  another 
important  factor  in  decreasing  the  labor  of  farm  homes.  In 
the  last  analysis  this  reform  is  largely  a  matter  of  relative 
values  and  of  scientific  training.  It  takes  a  clear  vision,  capable 
of  seeing  beyond  the  four  walls  of  the  kitchen,  to  determine 
what  things  are  most  worth  while,  what  things  can  be  half 
done,  and  what  things  can  be  left  undone ;  but  such  an  appre- 
ciation of  relative  values  is  positively  necessary  to  progress  and 
to  the  happiness  of  farm  women. 

A  chief  difficulty  of  the  farm  home,  likely  suggested  before 
now  by  those  most  familiar  with  the  real  situation,  is  the 
present  scarcity  of  domestic  help.  No  panacea  for  this  trial 
has  as  yet  been  found,  but  in  this  connection  the  suggestion 
of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life  is  worthy  of  attention. 
This  looks  to  the  establishment  of  cooperative  community  plants 
to  which  many  domestic  labors,  especially  those  of  canning, 
laundering,  and  possibly  baking,  may  be  relegated.  The  fact 
that  hundreds  of  cooperative  creameries  are  already  estab- 
lished and  satisfactorily  disposing  of  the  milk  question  seems 
to  indicate  large  possibilities  in  the  future  development  of 
this  idea. 

Vocational  Education  for  Country  Women.  This  is  essen- 
tial as  the  basis  of  all  progress  within  the  farm  home.  Coun- 
try women  must  know  more  of  the  science  of  the  great  task 
to  which  they  devote  their  lives  before  much  can  be  expected 
in  the  way  of  progress,  even  as  the  men  must  know  more  of 
the  science  of  agriculture  before  marked  developments  can  be 
realized  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  This  knowledge  should 
include  not  only  house  sanitation,  decoration,  cookery,  and 
house  management,  but  child-study,  physiology,  and  some 
sociology  and  economics.     The  mother  who  knows  only  how 


30 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


to  feed  her  children  is  but  partiahy  prepared  for  her  duties, 
and  it  is  desirable  that  colleges  of  household  arts  come  to 
realize  this  still  more  fully  than  at  present.  For  country 
women,  farmers'  institutes  and  the  "short  courses"  of  agri- 
cultural colleges  now  offer  some  opportunity  in  this  field  of 
special  education.  But  even  these  advantages  are  not  always 
sufficiently  appreciated.  Inducing  farm  women  to  avail  them- 
selves of  these  opportunities  is  a  significant  field  of  influence 
for  the  capable  country  teacher. 


Home  Makers'  School  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana 


The  Participation  of  Farm  Women  in  Community  Affairs. 
Farm  home  life  can  never  be  sufficiently  broadening  until 
country  women  take  a  larger  part  in  community  aifairs. 
If  the  home,  as  has  been  said,  is  to  become  a  nursery  for 
inculcating  ideals  of  social  progress,  it  must  be  directed  by 
women  who  themselves  possess  these  ideals.  Such  social  par- 
ticipation will  prove  beneficial  not  only  to  children  in  the 
home  but  to  country  women  themselves.  Furthermore,  it  is 
essential  to  community  welfare.  The  point  of  view  of  women 
is  needed  upon  every  question  of  community  improvement  and 
especially  upon  matters  of  educational  and  social  relationship. 
The  growing  custom  of  putting  women  upon  school  boards 


THE  FARM  HOME  31 

should  be  encouraged  in  both  country  and  city,  and  women 
everywhere  should  realize  their  responsibility  in  this  direc- 
tion sufficiently  to  master  the  feeling  of  reticence  which  often 
withholds  them  from  such  service.  Professor  Bailey  in  his 
recent  book,  The  Country  Life  Movement,  speaks  as  follows 
of  woman's  contribution  to  community  progress:  "On  the 
women  depend  to  a  greater  degree  than  we  realize  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  movement  for  a  better  country  life,  wholly 
aside  from  their  personal  influence  as  members  of  families. 
Farming  is  a  co-partnership  business.  It  follows,  then,  that  if 
the  farming  business  is  to  contribute  to  the  redirection  of 
country  life,  the  woman  has  responsibilities  as  well  as  the 
man." 

The  Spiritualizing  of  Farm  Home  Life.  The  spiritualized 
life  of  any  home  is  the  only  true  measure  of  its  worth.  All 
things  should  be  made  to  contribute  to  this  end.  Immaculate 
housekeeping  and  household  slavery  are  now  understood  not  to 
be  real  home-making.  The  paramount  problem  in  home  im- 
provement is  ever  this  question  of  its  spiritualization.  When 
houses  are  more  convenient  and  relative  values  in  housekeep- 
ing better  understood,  the  spiritualization  of  farm  home  life 
will  follow  naturally.  A  further  general  solution  to  this 
problem  may  be  formulated  by  saying  that  it  is  to  be  solved 
through  the  development  of  a  greater  appreciation  of  prac- 
tical possibilities.  By  this  is  meant  embracing  present  possi- 
bilities as  they  may  be  met  with  better  management  and  more 
wisely  directed  energy,  not  developing  possibilities  that  require 
a  large  outlay  of  time,  and  money,  and  strength.  This  can 
be  partially  accomplished : 

1.  By  acquiring  increased  scientific  knowledge  of  home- 
making,  as  has  been  shown  above.  Only  in  this  way  can 
women  appreciate  the  dignity,  difficulty,  and  significance  of 
what  may  otherwise  seem  a  monotonous  task. 

2.  By  overcoming  the  existing  tendency  toward  fatalism. 


32 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


A  peculiar  fatalistic  attitude  of  mind  affects  all  farm  people. 
Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  in  her  article  on  the  farm  home  in 
the  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture  traces  the  cause  of  this  tend- 
ency to  the  control  of  nature.  But  whatever  the  source  may 
be,  that  such  an  influence  does  exist  is  plainly  evident,  par- 
ticularly in  the  more  barren  farm  homes.  For  this  fatalism 
must  be  substituted  what  some  one  has  termed  ''the  courage 
of  science."  This  and  the  spiritualization  of  the  common- 
place seem  to  afford  the  only  immediate  relief. 

3.  Through  a  better  system  of  household  management. 
This  remedy  has  been  briefly  discussed  above.  Without  fur- 
ther elaboration  it  may  be  re-stated  that  farmers'  wives  can 
do  little  spiritualizing  until  they  have  found  some  method  of 
reducing  the  drain  upon  their  time  and  strength,  and,  as  a 
variable  factor  in  this  direction,  household  management  should 
receive  due  attention. 

4.  Through  enlarged  opportunities  for  social,  educational, 
and  cultural  improvement.  These  include  all  influences  that 
broaden  and  sweeten  life.  Light,  cheer,  music,  literature,  pic- 
tures, conversation,  and  recreation,  can  all  be  made  to  con- 
tribute to  this  end.  The  necessity  for  better  lighting  facilities 
for  the  farm  home  needs  special  emphasis  in  this  connection. 
Children  naturally  love  light  and  beauty,  and  mothers  would 
do  well  to  remember  that  with  the  average  boy  a  brightly 
lighted  home  will  stand  the  competition  of  street  lights  in 
the  nearest  town  far  better  than  a  dark  and  cheerless  one. 
In  this  day  of  inexpensive  production,  every  home,  especially 
where  there  are  children,  should  possess  a  musical  instru- 
ment. Nothing  is  more  restful  than  music,  and  even  the  simple 
little  tunes  played  by  the  schoolgirl  add  harmony  to  the  daily 
routine. 

Art,  also,  should  be  made  to  contribute  more  to  the 
spiritualizing  influence  of  the  farm  home.  Good  copies  of 
the  masterpieces  of   art  are   now   so  inexpensive   that   there 


THE  FARM  HOME  33 

is  no  excuse  for  the  gaudy  calendars  and  enlarged  photo- 
graphs so  often  found  in  the  living-rooms  of  country  houses.^ 
Literature  is  perhaps  the  most  spiritualizing  influence  of  the 
average  farm  home,  but  much  of  the  reading  done  in  the 
country  is  of  a  desultory  character.  Too  little  attention  is 
given  to  the  upbuilding  of  systematically  planned  libraries. 
Books  are  often  indiscriminately  purchased  from  agents  or  at 
bargain  counters  and  are  carelessly  thrown  about  the  house 
until  lost  or  worn  out.  A  good  library,  one  that  means  any- 
thing to  its  owner,  is  the  product  of  years  of  development, 
and  the  fact  that  additions  must  be  made  slowly  is  in  no 
sense  a  matter  for  discouragement. 

Outside  the  home,  spiritualizing  stimulation  may  be  found 
in  all  the  social,  educational,  and  cultural  influences  of  the 
school,  the  church,  the  Grange,  and  other  social  agencies 
designed  to  promote  the  common  welfare.  These  are  dis- 
cussed in  later  chapters.  Travel,  also,  should  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection  because  of  the  cultivation  of  world  interests 
it  engenders. 

The  Farm  Home  as  the  Center  of  Rural  Interests.  That 
the  home  is  the  center  of  all  interests  is  usually  acknowledged 
by  workers  in  other  social  institutions,  at  least  in  theory. 
Grange  workers,  farmers'  institute  directors,  country  teachers, 
and  ministers  will  all  declare  that  they  are  making  the  home 
the  center  of  their  efforts.  Yet  in  practice  these  good  people 
seem  to  lose  connection  and  often  fail  to  attain  the  desired 
end.  This  is  especially  evident  in  the  case  of  the  church  and 
the  school.  Our  country  churches  do  not  have  more  than  a 
fraction  of  the  influence  over  farm  homes  of  the  present  gen- 
eration that  they  might  exert,  and  rural  schools  are  failing  mis- 
erably in  their  lack  of  adaptation  to  the  vocational  and  home 
needs  of  country  children. 

1  For  a  list  of  pictures  suitable  for  farm  home  decoration  see  the 
appendix  of  this  book,  Section  8. 


34 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


The  work  of  the  Grange  and  the  press  for  farm  homes. 
Probably  no  agency  has  done  more  in  its  established  field  for 
the  home  than  the  Grange.  A  good  grange  revolutionizes  the 
home  life  of  a  community.  Probably  none  does  less  at  pres- 
ent, except  for  the  savoring  grace  of  its  former  influence, 
than  the  church.  The  rural  press  is  another  agency  that  is 
failing  to  realize  its  opportunities  in  this  line.  Every  farm 
paper,  it  is  true,  keeps  up  a  semblance  of  home  interests  in  a 
column  or  so  devoted  to  "making  housework  easy"  or  to  petty 
correspondence,  but  little  is  done  to  reach  the  heart  of  the 
farm  housewife's  problems,  and  it  is  time  for  the  scientific 
and  appreciative  development  of  such  interests  through  agri- 
cultural papers. 

Farmers'  institutes  and  the  improvement  of  country  homes. 
Of  all  agencies  now  working  tow^ard  the  betterment  of  coun- 
try life,  none  have  greater  opportunity  for  improving  home 
conditions  than  the  farmers'  institute  and  the  country  school. 
Yet  in  neither  case  are  these  agencies  doing  a  tithe  of  what 
they  might  do.  If  they  were,  farm  home  conditions  w^ould 
be  better  than  they  are  at  present. 

Still,  the  farmers'  institute  as  an  organization  is  doing 
much  for  the  country  homes  of  America.  Through  its  women's 
sections,  women's  institutes,  and  housekeepers'  conferences 
it  is  conducting  a  home-educational  campaign  heretofore  un- 
known in  the  history  of  agriculture.  Only  two  or  three  sug- 
gestions for  the  enlargement  of  its  activities  along  this  line 
can  be  made  here,  but  institute  workers  would  soon  see  dozens 
if  they  but  centered  their  attention  upon  this  phase  of  their 
problem. 

In  the  first  place,  the  farmers'  institute,  though  fundamen- 
tally concerned  wnth  questions  of  agricultural  science,  might 
well  give  more  time  to  the  problems  of  the  home.  \Miat  atten- 
tion the  institute  does  give  to  home  improvement  is  chiefly  sci- 
entific information  on  cookerv  and  dietetics.     This   is  well- 


THE  FARM  HOME  31^ 

directed  effort  but  it  is  not  sufficient  in  either  quantity  or 
content.  Longer  sessions  and  more  systematic  instruction  in 
household  science,  and  in  other  subjects  also,  might  be  provided 
through  short  courses  or  movable  schools,  as  described  in  the 
chapter  on  farmers'  institutes.  In  addition  to  this,  the  institute 
should  develop  new  phases  of  home  study,  especially  those 
phases  relating  to  child-study  and  to  the  community  relations 
of  farm  women. 

As  another  effort  at  rural  home  improvement,  the  farmers' 
institute  might  in  some  way  establish  model  farmhouses,  or 
even  model  farms,  for  demonstration  purposes.  An  under- 
taking of  this  character  need  not  necessarily  be  expensive. 
The  institute  need  not  own  the  land.  In  every  rural  com- 
munity can  be  found  some  ambitious  young  farmer  who 
has  married  and  settled  down  on  a  piece  of  land  which  he 
expects  to  make  a  permanent  home.  If  such  a  young  couple 
had  scientific  advice  and  counsel  from  agricultural  special- 
ists and  extension  workers,  they  would  in  most  cases  accept 
it  gladly  and  profit  by  it.  Visiting  agents  might  be  employed 
by  the  county  or  state  organization  of  farmers'  institutes  to 
conduct  this  work.  For  the  farmer,  instruction  in  the  care 
of  stock,  soil,  and  general  farm  management,  would  be  neces- 
sary ;  for  the  wife,  instruction  in  house  management,  cookery, 
and  the  rearing  of  children.  Reading  would  naturally  play 
an  important  part  in  such  a  system,  but  its  chief  basis  should 
be  personal  visits  and  advice  from  the  specialists  employed. 
In  this  way  the  farm  and  the  farm  home  selected  might  easily 
be  converted  into  a  demonstration  of  local  possibility.  One 
experiment  of  this  character  in  every  three  or  four  townships 
would  be  sufficiently  local  to  attract  the  attention  of  all  the 
farmers  of  a  community. 

Improving  the  farm  home  through  the  country  school. 
While  it  is  hoped  that  what  is  said  here,  and  in  succeeding 
chapters,  is  sufficiently  related  to  the  real  conditions  of  the 


36 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


country  to  prove  of  value  to  farmers  and  all  others  connected 
with  country  life,  the  chief  concern  of  these  pages,  as  sug- 
gested in  the  preface,  is  to  assist  country  teachers  by  establish- 
ing a  little  more  clearly  the  relation  of  the  school  to  various 
other  rural  agencies.  The  connection  between  the  school  and 
the  home  is  commonly  acknowledged.  So,  too,  is  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  homes  of  a  community  for  the  character  of  the 


Domestic  Science  in  the  Country  School,  Macon  County,  Illinois 


school  maintained.  The  reciprocal  responsibility  of  the  school 
for  the  homes  that  support  it  is  also  acknowledged,  but  only 
remotely  felt,  and  not  yet  realized.  That  the  school,  even  the 
little  ungraded  district  school,  with  all  its  limitations,  can 
improve  existing  home  conditions,  however,  in  both  a  material 
and  a  spiritual  way,  is  occasionally  demonstrated  by  country 
teachers  and  is  made  the  basis  of  this  discussion.  Naturally 
the  influence  of  the  school  here  as  elsewhere  must  originate 
through   the  personal   influence  and  energy  of   the  teacher. 


THE  FARM  HOIME  37 

Three  ways  are  suggested  by  which  the  country  teacher,  work- 
ing through  the  agency  of  the  school,  may  help  to  improve 
the  farm  home. 

First,  through  suggestion,  sympathy,  and  personal  influence, 
the  teacher  may  incidentally  impart  a  great  deal  of  knowl- 
edge to  the  farm  women  of  the  community.  To  carry  this 
information  into  any  home  is  a  delicate  undertaking.  It  must 
be  done  by  one  who  has  worked  her^  way  into  the  very  lives 
of  the  people,  and  whose  training,  position,  and  understand- 
ing are  a  preparation  for  the  task.  Such  a  leader  must  not 
only  sympathize  with  the  difficulties  of  farm  life,  but  must 
possess  a  great  charitable  affection  for  the  humanity  with 
which  she  works.  The  opportunity  of  the  country  teacher  for 
leadership  in  rural  progress  is  considered  at  some  length  in  a 
later  chapter.  It  must  suffice  to  say  here  that  no  individual 
in  rural  life  can  come  so  close  to  the  hearts  of  the  people  as  a 
good  teacher.  Her  affection  and  devotion  to  the  community 
and  its  faith  in  her  make  possible  the  greatest  conceivable 
degree  of  personal,  local  leadership. 

As  a  second  attempt  at  cooperation  with  the  home,  the 
teacher  may  introduce  an  elementary  course  in  household 
science  into  the  school  curriculum.  Few  country  teachers  are 
at  present  adequately  prepared  to  do  this  work,  but  even 
untrained  teachers  can  accomplish  a  great  deal  in  the  way  of 
stimulating  thought  and  centering  attention  upon  the  problems 
of  the  home.  Such  a  course  need  not  begin  in  the  conven- 
tional "domestic  science"  way.  If  we  are  to  wait  for  the 
materials  and  preparation  for  which  this  method  calls  little 
will  be  done  for  a  long  time.  In  one  school  a  teacher  who 
had  no  materials,  and  but  little  training,  worked  out  a  suc- 
cessful  course   through   her   own   initiative,    founded   wholly 

1  Intimate  experience  has  so  ingrained  the  realism  of  country  school 
conditions  upon  my  point  of  view  that  I  have  disregarded  the  con- 
ventionalities of  literary  form,  and  shall  refer  to  the  country  teacher 
throughout  this  discussion  by  the  use  of  the  feminine  pronoun. 


38    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

upon  the  needs  of  her  particular  community.  A  description 
of  this  course  is  given  on  page  244. 

A  third  effort  for  the  development  of  an  improved  rural 
home  life  may  be  instituted  by  the  country  teacher  through 
conducting  some  elementary  extension  work  among  house- 
wives and  mothers.  This  may  be  done  by  organizing  a  little 
club  among  the  women  and  older  girls  of  the  community. 
A  home  culture  club,  or  a  civic  improvement  association,  or 
even  a  school  parents'  association,  makes  a  good  instrument 
through  which  to  work.  Such  matters  as  those  suggested  in 
the  course  just  mentioned  may  be  considered  as  topics  for 
discussion  in  this  club.  A  reading  course,  also,  may  be  made 
effective  for  this  extension  work.  Some  books  for  this  pur- 
pose are  listed  in  the  bibliography  of  this  book,  and  sources 
from  which  bulletins  and  valuable  information  may  be  gained 
are  included  in  the  rural  progress  directory. 

All  this  implies  that  the  teacher  as  well  as  the  mother  must 
have  a  deep  insight  into  the  lives  of  those  for  whom  she 
works  and  a  genuine  faith  in  the  possible  fulness  and  rich- 
ness of  country  life.  Without  this  ideal  little  can  be  accom- 
plished. Every  worker  for  rural  progress  must  possess  this 
vision  of  the  future,  though  no  one  needs  to  see  it  more  clearly 
or  to  cling  to  it  more  tenaciously  than  the  country  mother. 
The  home  is  indeed  the  heart  of  the  farm  but  the  mother 
is  the  heart  of  the  home.  To  no  class  of  women  in  our 
national  life  is  due  more  gratitude  and  consideration.  They, 
more  than  all  others,  have  sacrificed  for  the  heritage  we  now 
possess.  Into  the  farms  of  America  men  and  women  have 
put  their  lives ;  and  others  for  generations  to  come  will  con- 
tinue the  effort.  That  this  life  shall  be  relieved  of  much  of 
its  former  drudgery  and  spiritualized  through  the  social  and 
industrial  advancement  of  man  is  now  the  chief  concern  of 
the  country  school  and  of  all  other  agencies  working  toward 
rural  betterment. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 

The  Country  Church  as  an  Agency  for  Rural  Progress. 

The  country  church  question  is  in  many  respects  the  most 
baffling  of  rural  problems.  Small  membership,  poor  attend- 
ance, inadequate  financial  support,  and  sectarian  strife,  all  seem 
to  indicate  a  lack  of  religion  among  farmers.  Those  most  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  farm  life,  however,  realize  that  this 
impression  is  false.  Farmers  as  a  class  are  especially  in- 
clined toward  religious  thought.  Their  isolation,  close  con- 
tact with  nature,  and  even  the  monotony  of  their  work,  pro- 
mote reflection  and  a  spiritual  attitude.  The  boy  who  trudges 
all  day  behind  a  plow  ponders  many  things,  and  more  hymns 
are  sung  over  the  hot  ranges  of  farm  kitchens  than  in  the 
choirs  of  great  cathedrals.  Perhaps  one  of  the  first  needs  in 
the  redirection  of  the  church  is  a  new  definition  of  religion. 
Certainly  a  broader  and  more  comprehensive  interpretation  of 
the  term  would  at  least  prove  helpful. 

Those  who  measure  the  strength  of  the  church  as  a  socializ- 
ing force  in  country  life  only  by  the  number  of  existing 
churches  and  the  percentage  of  church  members  make  a 
grave  mistake.  The  church  as  an  agency  of  influence  is  much 
greater  than  this.  Even  unchurched  communities  are  reli- 
gious, and  the  church  in  a  broad  sense  is  the  social  repre- 
sentative of  all  the  religious  and  moral  tendencies  of  every 
community,  not  only  those  expressed  and  avowed,  but  the 
unexpressed  as  well. 

39 


40 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


This  interpretation  is  necessary  to  a  true  appreciation  of 
the  influence  of  the  church  as  a  rural  social  factor.  In  this 
connection  it  is  well  to  remember,  also,  that  the  present  loss 
of  prestige  on  the  part  of  the  country  church  is  neither  funda- 
mental nor  permanent,  but  only  the  inevitable  result  of  its 
delay  in  adapting  itself  to  recent  social  and  industrial  changes. 
The  church  has  ever  been  one  of  the  most  conservative  of 
institutions,  and  the  status  of  the  country  church  today  is  but 
an  example  of  the  condition  any  institution  assumes  when 
outstripped  in  progress  by  other  institutions.  The  present  is 
a  period  of  marked  transition  in  rural  life  from  which  the 
church  and  all  other  forces  will  emerge  with  renewed  vitality. 
The  country  church,  therefore,  notwithstanding  its  present  dor- 
mant state,  is,  and  will  ever  continue  to  be,  one  of  the  chief 
socializing  agencies  of  farm  life.  The  Country  Life  Commis- 
sion, whose  estimate  of  the  present  rural  situation  is  undoubt- 
edly authoritative,  emphasizes  the  social  responsibility  of  the 
church  very  strongly,  considering  it  ''fundamentally  a  neces- 
sary institution  in  country  life"  and  maintaining  that  it  must 
be  a  leader  in  the  attempt  to  idealize  this  life. 

The  Present  Status  of  Country  Churches.  Digest  of 
country  church  information  from  the  replies  gathered  by  the 
Country  Life  Commission.  Country  church  conditions  vary  in 
different  localities  quite  as  much  as  home  conditions,  and  any 
attempt  to  generalize  concerning  them  is  equally  hazardous. 
Aloreover,  few  statistics  are  available  for  this  purpose  and 
but  little  could  be  gained  from  such  a  study  if  they  were. 

Here  and  there  in  exceptional  communities  are  found  pros- 
perous country  churches  almost  ideal  in  every  way.  In  hun- 
dreds of  rural  localities,  however,  especially  outside  of  New 
England,  where  the  church  problem  is  rather  one  of  over- 
churching  than  of  under-churching,  there  are  no  local  churches, 
and  church  attendance  in  the  nearest  town,  owing  to  road 
conditions  and  other  causes,  is  irregular  and  infrequent.     In 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


41 


Other  instances  church  buildings  are  old  and  dilapidated,  con- 
gregations small,  pastors  underpaid,  and  all  local  church  his- 
tory is  but  a  pitiful  story  of  the  struggle  for  existence.  Sun- 
day schools,  upon  the  whole,  are  in  better  condition,  but  they 
too  are  invariably  handicapped  and  at  best  render  only  inade- 
quate returns  for  the  effort  put  into  them.  "Ten  thousand 
church  buildings,"  says  a  recent  editorial  in  the  Outlook,  "are 
now  out  of  use  and  repair  in  the  United  States,  as  an  indication 


^»i'-*^%'''     '    .!■          V-- 

Sk- 

^a.;  --    ■  -.- 

^■r^^^|^!^^^.,;i  ^i^-^lr  >' 

^^sasam 

f"    '■•■•*■.''» 

^^ 

r. 

'               .-^ 

1 

^^^^^3 

■':■■; 

1 

^ -  -  ■  -     ■  ^  .     \ 

m 

ife»**' 

1    •■■  -■ 

Church  and  Manse,  Rock  Creek  Community,  Menard  County,  Illinois 

This  church  is  the  center  of  a  satisfying  country  neighborhood 

six  miles  from  any   town 


of  changing  belief  and  conditions,   and  ten  thousand  more 
ought  to  be  out  of  use." 

Among  the  chief  causes  of  this  distress,  as  diagnosed  by 
those  who  have  made  the  most  careful  analysis  of  country 
church  conditions,  are  overlooking  and  overlapping.  By  over- 
looking is  meant  neglect  and  the  absence  of  church  influence; 
by  overlapping,  the  multiplication  and  existence  of  more  sepa- 


42    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

rate  denominational  churches  than  a  community  can  support.. 
The  one  means  too  little  church  opportunity ;  the  other  too 
much.  Unchurched  localities  are  frequent  in  many  sections, 
especially  in  the  West  and  Middle  West,  and  their  condition  is 
serious.  But  even  the  apparent  paganism  of  such  communi- 
ties is  desirable  to  the  friction  and  strife  occasioned  by  over- 
churching  or  overlapping. 

The  two  factors  of  rural  church  decadence  just  cited,  how^- 
ever,  though  fundamental,  do  not  reach  the  heart  of  the  pres- 
ent situation.  In  this  effort  a  consideration  of  the  following 
statistics  on  ministerial  salaries  gathered  by  Reverend  Edgar 
Blake  of  New  Hampshire  is  suggested.  These  statistics  are 
based  upon  the  salary  lists  of  the  four  leading  denominations 
in  New  Hampshire.  In  this  state  two  hundred  nine  churches 
do  not  raise  over  $500  each  for  this  purpose,  and  of  these  one 
hundred  fifty-eight  raise  less  than  $500 ;  one  hundred  twelve 
raise  less  than  $400;  sixty-five  raise  less  than  $300;  twenty- 
five  less  than  $200;  and  a  few  less  than  $icx).  And  in  general, 
forty-one  per  cent  of  the  four  leading  denominations  in  New 
Hampshire  do  not  raise  an  amount  for  ministers'  salaries  equal 
to  the  wages  of  common  labor.  A  special  investigation  of  this 
question  made  throughout  the  Methodist  denomination  in  1910 
shows  that  outside  a  hundred  of  the  largest  cities  the  average 
salary  of  Methodist  ministers  is  but  $3/3  a  year.  From  these 
and  numerous  similar  facts  it  is  evident  that  the  country  church 
problem  is  an  economic  problem. 

The  country  church  question  and  other  phases  of  country 
life  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  investigated  to  make  general- 
izations possible.  A  momentous  beginning  has  been  made  in 
this  direction,  however,  through  the  work  of  the  Commission 
on  Country  Life.  A  digest  of  the  church  information  gath- 
ered from  the  125,000  replies  received  by  this  commission  has 
been  compiled,  and  is  reproduced  here  through  the  kindness 
of  Professor  Kenvon  L.  Butterfield,  President  of  the  Massa- 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  43 

chusetts  College  of  Agriculture,  and  member  of  the  Commis- 
sion, under  whose  instruction  it  was  prepared.  This  digest 
furnishes  the  most  reliable  information  concerning  the  present 
status  of  country  churches  that  has  thus   far  been  deduced. 

What  proportion  of  the  zi'hole  population  of  the  community  do  the 
churches  hold  and  influence?  Replies  vary  from  1%  to  loo-r.  In  the 
South,  more  than  66%  of  the  whites,  often  80%  to  9090,  are  influenced. 
In  the  West,  the  average  often  runs  under  50%  ;  sometimes  very  low. 
On  the  whole,  from  50%  to  60%.  There  seems  to  be  a  falling  off  in 
the  East,  perhaps  more  in  active  membership  than  in  church  influence. 

Are  they  gaining  or  losing?  More  are  gaining  than  are  losing.  In 
the  East,  the  losers  and  the  stationaries  are  more  numerous  than  the 
gainers.  In  the  South,  there  is  a  decided  gain.  Nearly  ^tZ'^o  are 
neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  the  East  and  Central  West.  There  is 
some  evidence  that  village  churches  are  gaining,  but  that  isolated 
country  churches  are  losing. 

Where  they  fail,  what  are  the  reasons?  The  most  frequent  reasons 
are  indifference,  lack  of  earnestness  and  missionary  zeal,  inadequate 
preparation  or  inefficiency  on  the  part  of  the  pastor.  Apathy,  in- 
difference, commercialism,  growing  irreligion,  or  antipathy  to  the 
church  on  the  part  of  those  sought.  But  a  large  percentage  speak  of 
bad  roads,  sparse  and  poor  population;  lack  of  men  and  churches  to 
cover  the  ground ;  irregular  service ;  with  fatigue,  hard  conditions  of 
life,  incessant  toil,  and  insufficient  clothes  for  church  going.  The 
churches  often  are  in  the  towns ;  in  the  West  the  country  church  is 
often  an  annex  or  appendage  and  all  its  energy  is  exhausted  in  a 
struggle  to  exist.  Sectarian  quarrels  sometimes  hinder ;  the  attitude 
of  the  church  on  the  amusements  of  the  young,  nurses  antipathy  in 
places;  in  the  West,  baseball,  excursions,  and  Saturday  night  dances; 
in  the  East,  the  Sunday  newspaper,  the  trolley,  and  the  city  amuse- 
ments, take  many  away. 

There  is  some  foreign  opposition  where  there  is  a  mixture  of  races 
and  not  a  church  for  each.  As  yet,  there  is  little  racial  commingling  in 
religious  matters.  The  church  often  has  no  interesting  message  for 
the  people;  it  does  not  get  into  their  lives.  Bigotry  and  worn  out 
dogma  do  not  draw  men.  The  laymen  are  not  enthusiastic  in  95% 
of  churches ;  even  church  members  do  not  train  their  children  in 
church  attendance,  and  they  often  exercise  very  little  authority  over 
them  in  religious  matters. 


44 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


The  floating  tenant  population  and  the  foreign  element,  who  care 
little  for  a  strict  Sabbath,  tend  to  break  down  religious  influence.  The 
adverse  influence  of  the  renter  in  supporting  the  church,  or  any  moral 
or  religious  community  organization,  is  noted  several  times. 

Is  the  muliiplication  of  churches,  because  of  denominational  divisions, 
a  factor^.  In  more  than  66%  of  cases,  perhaps,  it  is  a  factor.  Some 
do  not  understand ;  several  think  it  does  not  touch  the  problem ;  a  few 


Play  in  the  Rock  Creek  Community 

Scene  from  a  Pourth-of-July  celebration  inaugurated  by  the  church. 
The  push  ball  for  this  game  was  made  by   the  boys 


think  it  the  biggest  mistake  in  villages  and  small  towns,  especially  in' 
the  West. 

Does  it  aid  or  hinder  church  work?  It  aids  in  a  fair  minority  of 
cases.  Competition  stimulates;  there  are  too  few  churches  to  cover 
the  ground  (South  and  West)  ;  there  must  be  at  least  a  Catholic 
and  a  Protestant  church,  and  one  for  each  foreign  tongue. 

It  hinders  in  the  major  number;  sometimes  by  sectarian  prejudice, 
often  by  dividing  the  financial  support.     The  South  and  far  West  re- 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


45 


port  less  hindrance  than  would  be  supposed.  A  few  cases  of  federated 
or  "union"  churches  are  mentioned. 

What  proportion  of  churches  might  be  wisely  eliminated  by  consolida- 
tion or  federation  f  The  usual  reply  is  33%  or  50%.  A  small  minority- 
feel  that  90%  might  be  eliminated.  The  feeling  that  there  is  a  growing 
harmony  among  denominations  is  manifest. 

What  changes  in  church  methods  are  required  to  meet  present  con- 
ditions t  This  is  frequently  answered  by,  ''Can't  say,"  or,  "We  want 
to  know."  Liberality;  harmony;  union;  less  doctrinal  preaching; 
more  talks  on  right  living;  emphasis  on  things  of  this  life;  sympathy 
with  rural  life;  teach  love  of  rural  things;  respect  for  law;  Christian 
brotherhood  to  the  children;  the  institutional  church;  men's  and 
women's  clubs ;  personal  work — visitation ;  a  church  open  week  days ; 
live  pastors ;  cooperation  with  schools,  farmers'  organizations  and  fra- 
ternal orders,  are  common  suggestions.  In  the  South,  an  educated 
ministry  is  the  vital  need.  Sectarianism  runs  high,  but  it  is  not  the 
fundamental   weakness. 

^lany  think  no  revolutionary  change  is  necessary;  preach  the  Gospel 
of  the  Scriptures  with  earnestness ;  renew  missionary  zeal ;  consider 
the  church  an  organ  for  community  spirit;  let  the  ministers  be  "coun- 
try" men  of  Christian  spirit,  and  the  church  will  revive.  In  general, 
the  testimony  impresses  one  with  the  idea  that  the  needs  of  the 
country  in  this  respect  are  not  very  different  from  those  of  the  city. 

What  are  the  churches  doing  for  the  community  life — its  educational, 
industrial,  social,  and  recreational  development?  Almost  nothing  for 
the  industrial;  a  good  deal  for  the  social  (in  fact,  all  that  is  done, 
often)  through  organizations  previously  mentioned;  frequently  a  good 
deal  for  the  recreational  and  a  Httle  for  the  educational,  chiefly  by 
lecture  courses  and  reading  clubs. 

Very  often  nothing  at  all  is  done  except  in  a  social  way.  Many 
answer,  *'A11  they  can  do." 

What  more  could  and  should  they  do  in  these  lines?  Churches  might 
provide  attractive  music  and  lecture  courses ;  become  a  center  of  social 
life  open  for  community  enterprises  and  gatherings  of  various  sorts; 
might  organize  educational  classes  and  recreations  after  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  fashion;  might  teach  cooking,  hygiene  and  right  living,  and 
industrial  economics  for  the  whole  com-munity.  More  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  poor,  to  the  outsider,  to  the  young  people,  to  the  for- 
eigner and  stranger.  Some  suggest  churches  with  gymnasiums,  bath- 
rooms, and  rest-rooms.     Several  want  pastors  who  live  in  the  country. 


46    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Many  feel  that  the  church  can  do  no  more,  nor  is  it  organized  to  do 
anything  along  these  lines. 

How  far  are  they  responsible  for  the  tendency  azvay  from  the  farm? 
Not  at  all,   unless  negatively,   by  not   making   country  life   attractive. 

To  what  degree,  and  how,  do  they  actually  influence  the  morals  of 
the  community^  They  have  a  wide  influence  in  the  large  majority  of 
cases,  often  indefinable,  sometimes  weak.  The  precept  and  example 
of  pastors  and  people  are  usually  good.  They  stand  for  the  best 
things.  The  best  people  belong  to  the  church.  They  stand  firmly 
against  flagrant  vice,  sin,  and  lawlessness.  The  church  is  often  the 
only  organized  moral  force  in  the  community.  Pulpit  preaching  and 
Sabbath  school  teaching  are  strong  forces  for  righteousness  and 
morality   in  most  communities. 

A  few  think  the  church  has  little  influence  in  any  way. 

Are  the  country  clergymen  properly  trained  for  their  work?  In  the 
majority  of  cases  they  are  not.  Presbyterians,  Lutherans,  Catholics, 
and  Congregationalists  are  said  to  be  men  of  good  conventional  edu- 
cation everywhere. 

//  not,  in  what  respect  lacking?  Deplorable  ignorance  in  all  respects 
in  the  South.  Elsewhere,  broad  culture,  knowledge  of  men  and  affairs, 
sometimes  Biblical  knowledge,  and  general  education;  often  tact,  com- 
mon sense,  agricultural  knowledge ;  sympathy  with  farm  life,  energy, 
zeal,  personal  power  as  leaders,  financial  ability ;  gumption  ;  occasion- 
ally they  are  morally  unsound.  Alany  complain  that  the  country 
clergyman  is  a  young  man  getting  the  experience  necessary  to  hold  a 
city  church,  or  an  old  man  who  has  been  "shelved."  "The  country  is 
not  my  home"  for  most  of  them,  say  some.  There  is  evidence  that  the 
frontier  missionary  is  better  fitted  for  his  work  than  almost  any  other 
man  in  the  service. 

Other  testimonies  are :  "They  need  more  sociology,  economics, 
political  science,  in  place  of  denominational  theology."  "There  are 
no  men  trained  for  country  service."  "They  consider  the  country 
church  a  stepping  stone,  the  sooner  passed,  the  better."  "I  think  50% 
of  the  men  who  serve  country  churches  have  no  sympathy  with 
farmers  or  farm  conditions,  .  .  .  and  no  sense  of  the  trials  that 
belong  to  farm  life."  "They  need  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  farm 
needs  under  present  economic,  industrial,  and  social  conditions." 

What  is  the  average  compensation?  In  the  South,  from  $50  to  $800 
per  year;  average  about  $500;  very  many  have  four  to  six  churches 
at  $50  to  $150  per  year  each. 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  47 

In  the  East  and  far  West,  the  compensation  is  from  $500  to  $1200 
(a  very  few  mention  $1500)  ;  the  average  is  about  $800  to  $1000. 

For  the  rest,  the  compensation  runs  from  $400  to  $1000;  $600  to 
$800  on  the  whole.    The  manse  is  usually  furnished  in  addition. 

Is  this  adequate i'  Very  few  find  it  adequate  to  raise  and  educate 
a  family  on,  and  leave  anything  for  a  library.  A  good  many  thmk  it 
is  inadequate  for  the  work  to  be  done,  but  sufficient  for  the  work  that 
is  done.     Many  communities  want  a  minister  "his  entire  time." 

In  what  way  can  there  be  improvements  in  these  respects^  Elim- 
inate, consolidate,  federate,  pay  more  and  thus  draw  better  men; 
revolutionize  the  finances,  adopt  the  tithing  system,  or  introduce  sys- 
tematic giving;  run  the  church  by  a  business  man  on  a  business  basis. 
Let  the  seminaries  train  men  for  country  charges.  Have  country 
parsonages ;  make  the  church  more  of  a  community  agency,  and  more 
money  and  better  men  will  come.  There  is  a  feeling  that  the  well- 
equipped  man  will  be  paid  adequately,  but  at  present  the  good  men 
go  to  the  city;  they  have  no  sympathy  with  rural  life.  Some  believe 
that  cooperation  of  church  and  grange  and  school  would  help  the 
situation.  A  few  think  that  the  whole  denomination  should  aid  in 
supporting  the  weak  churches.  Very  many  have  nothing  to  offer. 
Ministers   say  they  have  been  long  engaged  on  this  problem. 

Is  the  community  fully  able,  Unancially,  to  support  adequate  church 
work  zvithout  outside  aid?  The  community  is  able  in  90%  of  cases. 
Sometimes  the  church  membership  is  not.  The  tenancy  problem  enters 
here,  and  of  course  the  number  of  churches,  necessary  or  unnecessary. 
Many  country  churches  receive  aid  from  a  central  board.  In  a  pioneer 
community  and  among  the  poorer  districts  of  the  South,  some  outside 
aid  seems  to  be  necessary.  Several  object  that  the  money  spent  for  bad 
spirits  and  tobacco  in  almost  any  community  would  lavishly  support 
a  pastor. 

What  Is  Being  Done  for  Progress 
Church  Federation.  From  the  foregoing  discussion  it  is 
evident  that  a  plan  designed  to  overcome  the  two  evils  of 
overlooking  and  overlapping,  providing,  at  the  same  time  for 
financial  difficulties,  would  be  at  least  a  partial  salvation  for 
coimtry  churches.  Though  not  generally  familiar  to  country 
laymen,  such  a  plan  known  as  church  federation  is  now  under 
way  and  well  developed  in  some  sections,  especially  in  New 


48    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

England,  where  it  originated.  By  federation  is  meant  simply 
the  cooperation  and  working,  together  of  churches  for  the  com- 
mon good.  In  many  respects  it  is  a  movement  among  churches 
analogous  to  that  of  consolidation  among  schools. 

Federation  does  not  necessarily  mean  the  renunciation  of 
denominational  principles  on  the  part  of  those  who  constitute 
the  new  union.  It  means  only  the  subordination  of  creed  and 
doctrine,  and  the  emphasis  of  common  Christianity  in  an 
effort  to  elevate  mankind  by  improving  the  social  and  spir- 
itual conditions  of  a  local  community.  It  means,  in  the  con- 
crete, that  instead  of  attempting  to  half  maintain  four  or 
five  unpaid  ministers  and  struggling  churches  in  one  parish, 
the  available  funds  and  energy  shall  be  consolidated  and 
directed  toward  the  decent  support  of  one  or  two  ministers 
and  churches.  Federation  means,  briefly,  increased  salaries 
for  ministers,  larger  congregations  and  Sunday  schools,  bet- 
ter church  buildings,  increased  social,  religious,  and  civic 
consciousness,  and  a  more  Christ-like  spirit  of  harmony  and 
unity.  Its  fundamental  element  is  the  one  needed  in  all  rural 
progress,  namely,  cooperation.  The  report  of  the  Country 
Life  Commission  contains  the  following  statement  concerning 
it :  "This  movement  for  federation  is  one  of  the  most  promis- 
ing in  the  whole  religious  field,  because  it  does  not  attempt  to 
break  down  denominational  influence  or  standards  of  thought. 
It  puts  emphasis  not  on  the  church  itself,  but  on  the  work  to 
be  done  by  the  church  for  all  men — churched  and  unchurched. 
.  .  .  It  hardly  seems  necessary  to  urge  that  the  spirit  of 
cooperation  among  churches,  the  diminution  of  sectarian 
strife,  the  attempt  to  reach  the  entire  community,  must  become 
the  guiding  principles  everywhere  if  the  rural  church  is  long 
to  retain  its  hold." 

Local  church  federation  has  been  practiced  unconsciously 
in  the  L'nited  States  since  the  colonization  of  the  country,  but 
it  is  only  recently  that  the  federation  movement  has  assumed 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


49 


significant  proportions  and  become  a  state  and  national  move- 
ment. To  JMaine  belongs  the  credit  of  first  instituting  a  state- 
wide movement  for  this  purpose.  This  organization,  known 
as  the  Interdenominational  Commission  of  Maine,  originated 
in  the  letter  of  a  Methodist  delegate,  Reverend  C.  S.  Cum- 
mings,  to  a  Congregational  Conference  held  in  1890,  but  was 


/■-. 


% 

1 
» 


Federated  Church,  Proctor,  Vermont 
In   this  church  twelve  different  denominations  worship  peacefully 

not  officially  organized  until  the  succeeding  year.  Every  state 
in  New  England  is  now  organized  for  church  federation.  The 
movement  has  spread  as  far  west  as  Arizona,  enrolling  in  all 
eighteen  states.  Of  this  number,  Vermont,  Massachusetts, 
and  Rhode  Island  are  most  efifectively  organized.  The  New 
England  states,  through  their  mutual  ties  of  similar  indus- 
trial,  social,  and  religious  experience,  have  recently  gone  a 


50    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

step  farther  and  organized  a  New  England  Country  Church 
Association. 

Unique  among  the  federated  churches  of  New  England, 
owing  to  the  number  of  denominations  included,  is  the  Union 
Church  at  Proctor,  Vermont.  Here  twelve  denominations  are 
united.  Something  of  the  significance  of  the  spirit  behind 
this  movement  may  be  appreciated  by  noting  the  variety  of 
doctrine  represented  in  this  fellowship,  which  begins  with 
Unitarians  at  one  extreme  and  runs  through  the  scale  to 
Catholics  at  the  other,  including  also  Baptists,  Free  Baptists, 
Presbyterians,  Episcopalians,  Universalists,  Christians,  Con- 
gregationalists,  Methodists,  members  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Hungary,  and  Friends.  As  a  result  of  this  union,  the  civic 
and  religious  spirit  of  the  town  has  been  greatly  heightened, 
the  finances  of  the  church  are  in  such  admirable  shape  that 
a  $35,000  marble  building  has  been  erected,  and  a  capable 
minister  has  been  employed  and  paid  a  worthy  salary. 

To  interpret  this  tendency  toward  union  among  churches 
properly,  the  reader  should  understand  that  these  local  mani- 
festations are  but  part  of  a  great  national  movement  in  the 
same  direction.  This  national  movement  is  now  centered 
in  a  body  of  appointed  delegates  representing  thirty-two  of 
the  evangelical  denominations  of  the  United  States  and  about 
eighteen  million  laymen,  known  as  the  Federal  Council  of  the 
Churches  of  Christ  in  America.  Biennial  meetings  of  this 
Council  have  been  held  since  1908.  Reports  of  these  meetings 
are  published  in  pamphlet  form  and  may  be  obtained  with 
other  literature,  as  advised  in  the  rural  progress  directory  of 
this  book.  The  development  of  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches 
is  regarded  by  leading  theologists  and  others  who  have  most 
carefully  measured  its  meaning  "as  the  most  Christian  meas- 
ure ever  taken  in  America."  This  organization  now  serves  as 
a  clearing  house  for  church  information  and  as  a  great  cen- 
tral force  for  religious  harmony  and  concentrated  effort. 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  51 

Special  Training  for  Country  Ministers.  In  a  series  of 
lectures  recently  delivered  before  the  students  of  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary,  President  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield  said: 
*T  hold  that  the  problem  of  the  country  church  is  the  most 
important  aspect  of  the  rural  problem.  It  touches  the  high- 
est point  in  the  redirection  of  rural  life.  It  sounds  the  deepest 
note  in  harmonizing  the  factors  of  a  permanent  rural  civiliza- 
tion. It  speaks  the  most  eloquent  word  in  the  struggle  to  main- 
tain the  status  of  the  farming  class."  If  this  is  true,  and  it 
seems  to  be  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  rural  sociologists, 
it  m.eans  that  the  country  church  must  ultimately  stand  forth 
as  the  leading  institution  of  rural  life.  The  advantages  of 
the  country  school  for  assuming  immediate  Responsibility 
in  a  campaign  for  rural  progress  are  advocated  later  in  this 
book  (Chapter  VII),  but  this  leadership  is  acknowledged 
a  somewhat  transitory  function  of  the  school,  and  it  is  clear 
that  eventually  the  church  must  "sound  the  deepest  note  in  a 
permanent  rural  civilization." 

The  fulfilment  of  this  opportunity  on  the  part  of  the 
church,  however,  will  require  a  redirected,  energized  rural 
ministry.  The  country  minister  must  become  a  leader.  For 
this  leadership  he  has  already  some  advantages  not  possessed 
by  the  teacher.  For  one  thing,  he  is  associated  chiefly  with 
adults  and  is  usually  less  migratory  than  the  present  country 
teacher.  He  is  thus  in  a  position  to  be  the  key,  not  only  to 
the  country  church  problem,  but  to  the  whole  rural  situation.  " 
But  such  leadership  on  the  part  of  the  country  minister  neces- 
sitates not  only  scholarship  but  peculiar  sympathy  and  insight 
into  the  experiences  and  problems  of  farm  life,  both  of  which 
are  too  often  lacking.  For  many  reasons,  chiefly  economic, 
for  vs^hich  they  are  by  no  means  wholly  accountable,  country 
clergy,  like  country  teachers,  are  too  likely  to  be  either  the 
"back  numbers"  or  the  youths  of  their  profession. 

The  necessity  of  special  training  for  country  ministers  is  but 


52    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

very  recently  coming  to  be  recognized.  This  training  when 
given  will  be  analogous  to  that  provided  for  country  teachers, 
though  perhaps  less  intensive  and  detailed.  But  the  same 
argument  holds  for  both — namely,  that  any  leader  or  public 
servant,  to  be  efficient,  must  understand  the  daily  life  of  those 
for  whom  he  works.  And,  since  life  is  expended  chiefly  in  the 
occupation  whereby  wx  live,  it  follows  that  country  teachers 
and  preachers  must  knoiv  agriculture  and  the  social  and  eco- 
nomic conditions  of  farm  life.  This  is  positively  fundamental. 
Both  religion  and  education  in  the  country  must  run  into  the 
affairs  of  everyday  life.  The  Independent  for  August  26, 
1909,  summarizes  the  type  of  man  and  training  needed  in  rural 
parishes  pretty  well  in  these  words :  ''The  minister  of  a 
country  church  ought  to  know  more  of  what  Jesus  knew  and 
of  what  Burbank  knows ;  that  is,  a  good  deal  about  the  flowers 
of  the  field  and  about  farmers'  crops ;  and  he  ought  to  know 
the  science  of  agriculture  right  up  to  date.  On  a  Sunday  if 
it  comes  to  a  pinch  between  having  his  parishioners'  hay  get 
wet  and  his  church  get  empty,  why  should  he  not  put  his 
manuscript  in  his  pocket,  take  a  hay  fork  in  his  hand  and 
help  his  poorest  parishioner  secure  his  crop?  This,  at  least, 
should  be  his  comprehension  of  righteousness  and  duty." 

For  much  of  the  present  neglect  in  this  matter  of  special 
training  for  rural  pastors  the  theological  seminaries  are 
undoubtedly  accountable,  just  as  state  normal  schools  are 
accountable  for  the  lack  of  special  training  among  country 
teachers.  Nowhere  is  the  work  of  theological  schools  defi- 
nitely organized  and  planned  to  meet  the  specific  needs  of  stu- 
dents who  expect  to  enter  the  rural  field.  Indeed,  the  nucleus 
of  the  whole  situation  is  that  practically  no  students  do  pur- 
posefully and  consistently  plan  to  undertake  rural  work  and 
make  it  a  serious  life  study.  The  country  parish  is  invariably 
regarded  as  a  stepping-stone,  the  sooner  passed  the  better. 
What  the  country  needs  most  in  the  way  of  church  improve- 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  53 

ment  is  a  profession  of  country  clerg}'  who  will  study  the  prob- 
lems of  rural  life  as  carefully  as  city  clergy  now  study  those 
of  urban  life.  But  farmers  must  understand  that  such  a 
profession,  like  the  country  teaching  profession,  can  never 
arise  until  matters  of  economic  support,  which  lie  within  their 
power,  are  satisfactorily  adjusted  through  the  principle  of 
federation  or  in  some  other  way. 

What  special  assistance  is  available  for  country  ministers 
at  present  comes  for  the  most  part  through  country  church 
conferences.  Even  this  aid  is  still  rare,  but  new  instances 
are  arising  every  month.  Among  the  most  significant  of 
these  conferences  yet  convened  have  been  those  held  annually 
since  1908  under  the  direction  of  the  Massachusetts  College 
of  Agriculture  at  Amherst.  Here  for  the  past  three  years 
a  Conference  of  Agricultural  Educators  and  Rural  Social 
Workers  has  been  called,  preceding  which  a  two  weeks'  course 
of  lectures  especially  designed  for  country  ministers  is  offered. 
This  course  is  a  part  of  the  regular  summer  school  of  the 
agricultural  college,  and  relates  almost  wholly  to  agriculture 
and  the  social  and  economic  aspects  of  farm  life. 

The  Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  of  Home  Missions.  By  far  the  most  active 
and  constructive  agency  for  country  church  betterment  that 
has  yet  developed  is  the  Department  of  Church  and  Country 
Life  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Home  Missions.  This 
department,  under  the  scientific  direction  of  Dr.  Warren  H. 
Wilson,  has  become  practically  a  national  clearing  house  for 
country  church  information  and  suggestion,  not  only  for 
country  churches  of  the  Presbyterian  denomination  but  for 
all  others,  and  especially  for  rural  social  workers  throughout 
the  United  States.  Through  the  help  of  Miss  Anna  B.  Taft, 
assistant  superintendent  of  the  department,  the  following  com- 
prehensive outline  of  its  work  is  possible  here. 

The  central  thought  of  this   department   about   which   its 


54 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


various  forms  of  activity  are  correlated  is  an  institutional  pro- 
gram of  action  for  the  country  church.  This  program  consti- 
tutes the  most  thorough  analysis  of  the  present  country  church 
situation  yet  made.  It  has  been  worked  out  by  Dr.  Wilson 
and  successful  ministers  from  local  rural  fields  who  are  coop- 
erating with  the  department,  and  indicates  the  general  line  of 
action  and  procedure  which,  through  experience  and  actual 
test,  has  proved  most  direct  and  effective  in  solving  the  prob- 
lems of  the  country  church.  This  platform,  briefly  sum- 
marized, advocates : 

The  church  as  a  center  for  the  building  of  the  community. 

The  federation  and  cooperation  of  all  the  churches  in  the 
community  in  order  to  make  the  people  one. 

The  consolidation  of  rural  schools  for  the  education  of  young 
men  and  women  for  life  in  the  country. 

The  promotion  of  scientific  agriculture  in  order  to  conserve 
the  soil  for  our  children. 

The  production  of  an  abundance  for  the  consumer,  and  the 
keeping  of  the  farmer's  income  abreast  of  the  rising  price  of 
land. 

The  leadership  of  the  church  in  social  recreation  for  the 
moral  dez'clopment  of  the  youth  and  the  zvorkingmen  of  the 
community. 

Better  living  conditions  in  the  interests  of  the  future  arid 
the  cherishing  of  the  history  of  the  community  in  memory  of 
past  days. 

Such  ministry  to  the  community  that  pauperism  shall  be 
excluded  and  the  burden  of  poverty  lifted. 

The  preaching  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  all  the  time  and 
in  every  community. 

Underlying  this  program  of  action  is  an  important  field  of 
investigation  and  research.  This  work  is  carried  on  through 
rural  sociological  surveys.  By  means  of  these  surveys  all  the 
conditioning  factors  of  church  welfare  in  a  local  rural  com- 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


55 


rnunlty  are  ascertained  and  made  available  for  reference  and 
guidance.  Information  relating  to  family  life,  household  com- 
fort, methods  of  farming,  schools,  business,  and  other  needs 
and   conditions   of   the   community   life,    are    covered   in   this 


Exhibit  of  the  Presbyterian  Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life 
Made  at  the  Fourth  National  Corn  Exposition,  Columbus,  Ohio,  1911 


investigation,  which  includes  not  church  members  only  but  the 
total  population  of  the  whole  community.  These  surveys  are 
urged  by  the  department  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  work  of 
every  country  minister.  The  inestimable  value  of  such  effort 
as  a  guide  to  action  and  policy  is  obvious.     Local  surveys  of 


56    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

this  type,  now  obtainable  in  print,  have  been  made  in  HHnois, 
Missouri,  and  Pennsylvania. 

Another  activity  of  the  Presbyterian  Department  is  its  pub- 
licity work.  This  is  carried  on  through  the  press,  through 
numerous  church  conferences,  and  through  exhibits.  The  leaf- 
lets put  out  by  the  department  from  time  to  time  constitute 
some  of  the  best  current  literature  on  the  country  church  ques- 
tion, and  every  country  teacher  and  rural  life  worker  would 
do  well  to  request  copies  from  the  office  in  New  York.  Aside 
from  this  leaflet  literature,  many  articles  for  the  religious  and 
general  press,  and  monthly  articles  to  over  two  hundred  agri- 
cultural papers,  are  prepared  and  published  by  the  officers  of 
the  department.  The  country  church  conferences  just  men- 
tioned are  of  two  types,  the  extended  "congress,"  two  or  three 
days  in  duration,  and  the  ''one-day  country  life  institute."  A 
sociological  survey  of  all  or  some  part  of  the  territory  involved 
precedes  each  congress  and  the  results  of  this  survey  are 
shown  graphically  in  an  exhibit. 

But  the  most  significant  effort  of  the  Presbyterian  Depart- 
ment of  Church  and  Country  Life  is  its  training  of  ministers 
for  rural  service.  Special  summer  schools  are  organized  for 
this  purpose.  These  are  held  sometimes  in  theological  colleges, 
though  more  generally  in  agricultural  colleges.  But  wher- 
ever their  location,  an  admirable  blending  of  theology,  rural 
sociology,  and  agriculture  is  always  insured.  The  courses  thus 
offered  are  in  substance  graduate  courses  for  country  minis- 
ters and  are  planned  with  the  view  of  preparing  leaders  for 
the  extension  of  the  work  and  policy  of  the  department. 
These  leaders,  or  ''country  life  organizers,"  in  returning  to 
their  local  fields,  practice  the  country  church  program  advo- 
cated by  the  department  in  their  own  churches,  and,  through 
addresses  and  local  organizations  otherwise  cooperate  with 
the  national  office  for  the  promotion  of  better  country  church 
conditions.    Over  a  hundred  such  organizers  are  now  at  work 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  ^^ 

scattered  throughout  the  various  states.    The  value  of  this  in- 
oculation is  self-evident. 

Even  from  this  brief  account  it  is  clearly  apparent  that 
most  excellent  service  for  country  church  progress  is  being 
rendered  by  the  Presbyterian  denomination  through  its  Depart- 
ment of  Church  and  Country  Life.  So  efficient,  in  fact,  is  this 
service  that  it  is  to  be  hoped  other  denominations  will  soon 
institute  similar  departments  for  the  benefit  of  their  country 
churches.^ 

County  Work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 
Another  movement  doing  effective  work  for  the  progress  of 
the  country  church  and  the  improvement  of  rural  religious 
conditions  has  been  instituted  through  the  County  Depart- 
ment of  the  Young  ]\Ien's  Christian  Association.  Of  this 
agency  and  its  w^ork  in  rural  communities,  the  Country  Life 
Commission  says :  "There  should  be  a  large  extension  of 
the  work  of  the  Young  ]\Ien's  Christian  Association  into  the 
rural  communities.  There  is  apparently  no  other  way  to  grip 
the  hearts  and  lives  of  the  boys  and  young  men  of  the  aver- 
age country  neighborhood.  This  association  must  regard  itself 
as  an  ally  of  the  church,  with  a  special  function  and  a  special 
field." 

The  general  organization  of  the  work  which  is  here  so 
highly  commended  embodies  national,  state,  county,  and  local 
units.  The  responsibility  rests  chiefly  upon  the  secretaries  of 
these  various  units,  who  in  most  cases  are  men  of  special 
training  and  keen  insight.  The  central  office  is  located  in 
Xew  York,  at  124  East  Twenty-eighth  Street,  with  Mr.  Albert 
E.  Roberts  as  International  Secretary.  Each  organized  state 
then  has  its  central  state  office  and  state  secretary  to  super- 
vise the  local,  city,  village,  and  township  associations.  This 
whole  organization  is  based  upon  the  principle  that  what  is 

1  The    ^lethodist    Church    has    Jnst    established    such    a    department 
at  its  last  general  conference    (1912). 


58 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


done  for  men  and  communities  is  likely  to  weaken  them,  but 
what  they  do  for  themselves  is  sure  to  strengthen.  In  har- 
mony with  this  doctrine  the  chief  function  and  golden  rule 
of  the  County  Work  of  the  Young  Men's  Association  has 
become  **the  discovery,  enlistment,  training,  and  direction 
of  volunteer  leaders."  Herein  lies  the  secret  of  the  success 
of  this  movement,  which  in  this  way  reaches  down  to  the  very 
heart  of  the  rural  social  problem,  fixing  its  attention  upon 


County  Work  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association 

some  guiltless  Cromwell  and  developing  his  latent  abilities 
into  powers  of  leadership  and  direction  for  the  benefit  of 
his  community.  The  significance  of  work  of  this  character 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  What  farmers  need  today 
is  not  imported  leadership,  but  the  inspiration  and  direction 
that  will  develop  their  own  talent  in  this  line. 

Fifty-three  counties  in  twenty-three  different  states  and 
Canadian  provinces  have  been  organized  under  the  County 
Department  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  and 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  ^9 

about  25,000  young  men  and  boys  are  enrolled  in  its  six  hun- 
dred local  organizations.  Among  the  states  best  organized 
are  New  York,  Michigan,  Iowa,  Ohio,  Massachusetts,  New 
Jersey,  and  ^Minnesota.  This  department  seeks  to  quicken  not 
only  the  religious  but  the  social  consciousness  of  its  mem- 
bership, and  like  other  far-seeing  agencies  is  working  toward 
the  cooperation  and  federation  of  all  rural  forces.  The 
peculiarity  of  its  influence  in  overriding  denominational  bar- 
riers and  furthering  the  progress  of  church  federation  is 
especially  worthy  of  notice.  Sociologically,  this  is  one  of  the 
most  significant  aspects  of  the  movement. 

Leaders  vary  in  degree  of  efficiency,  but  upon  the  whole 
the  work  of  the  County  Department  is  splendidly  adapted  to 
meet  the  needs  of  country  boys  and  to  fit  the  demands  of 
each  particular  group.  In  general,  where  properly  organized, 
it  is  four-fold,  and  the  boys  understand  that  they  must  support 
equally  well  religious,  social,  educational,  and  physical  activi- 
ties. Meetings  of  local  associations  are  held  usually  once  a 
week,  and  at  each  meeting  at  least  twenty  minutes  of  Bible 
study  is  required.  The  physical,  social,  and  educational  work, 
consisting  of  athletic  meets,  play  festivals,  summer  camps,  com- 
petitive games,  educational  excursions,  debates,  contests,  sup- 
pers, socials,  and  similar  activities,  makes  a  strong  appeal  to 
the  average  boy  and  suggests  a  happy  solution  of  the  problem 
of  recreation  for  country  boys,  which,  in  turn,  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  solving  the  much  discussed  problem  of  rural  mi- 
gration. 

A  little  magazine.  Rural  Manhood,  especially  devoted  to 
county  work  and  the  interests  of  the  farm,  is  now  issued 
monthly  by  the  Young  Glen's  Christian  Association  from 
the  central  office  in  New  York.  The  standards  of  this  masra- 
zine  are  excellent,  and  it  has  come  to  fill  a  much-felt  need. 
Another  undertaking  of  Young  Alen's  Christian  Association 


6o    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

management  is  the  promotion  of  special  summer  schools  at 
three  different  points,  particularly  at  Lake  Geneva,  Wisconsin, 
for  the  training  of  leaders  and  secretaries. 

A  similar  work  for  country  girls,  now  being  instituted 
through  the  energies  of  the  Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation, but  as  yet  somewhat  less  fully  developed,  must  be 
passed  over  here  for  lack  of  space.  In  principle  of  organiza- 
tion and  method,  however,  this  work  is  practically  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association. 

What  Might  Be  Done  for  Progress 

It  is  scarcely  the  province  here  to  point  out  what  may  be 
done  for  progress  in  the  trying  situations  that  confront  the 
country  church  today.  The  seriousness  of  this  problem  is  now 
engrossing  the  attention  of  some  of  the  best  minds  in  the  nation. 
Yet  some  things  are  so  evident  in  the  light  of  the  information 
which  has  just  been  presented  that  any  observer  might  sug- 
gest a  few  lines  of  advance.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  what  is  needed  is  more  of  the  good  work  now  in  opera- 
tion. The  country  church  needs  more  federation  and  coopera- 
tion, more  money,  more  of  the  spirit  of  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association,  better  educated  ministers,  and  more 
well-directed  leadership.  A  great  incongruity  exists  between 
the  amount  of  this  kind  of  work  done  and  the  amount  to  be 
done.  Those  who  know  the  actual  situation  well  realize  that 
the  lines  of  progress  pictured  in  this  chapter  are  not  universal. 
They  are,  in  truth,  only  the  scattered  threads  of  a  movement 
toward  progress  that  locally  is  just  becoming  conscious  and 
purposive. 

General  Lines  of  Progress.  The  great  opportunity  of  theo- 
logical schools  for  extending  their  courses  and  conducting  con- 
ferences to  meet  the  needs  not  only  of  students  preparing  to 
enter  the  rural  field,  but  of  clergy  already  at  work  in  it, 
has  been   indicated.     A   similar  opportunity  on  the  part  of 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  6l 

agricultural  colleges  to  respond  by  adapting  and  offering 
courses  in  agriculture  for  the  special  benefit  of  the  rural 
ministry  has  also  been  suggested.  But  the  work  should  go 
even  further  than  this.  Each  state,  through  some  of  its  edu- 
cational institutions  or  voluntary  organizations,  should  hold 
annual  rural  progress  conferences,  similar  to  those  now  under- 
taken in  Massachusetts  and  Illinois  (see  pages  309  and  318)  in 
which  the  various  rural  social  forces  of  the  state  are  repre- 
sented, with  the  church  receiving  its  share  of  attention. 

Probably  the  most  urgent  need  in  the  way  of  organization 
for  country  church  progress,  however,  is  for  the  establish- 
ment of  state  federations,  or  other  state-wide  interdenomina- 
tional associations,  for  country  churches.  An  active,  well- 
directed  state  federation  of  churches  in  every  state  in  the 
Union  would  work  wonders  for  Christian  unity  and  helpful- 
ness. These  organizations  should  serve  not  only  as  clearing 
houses  for  information,  but  as  central  advisory  boards  and 
sources  of  local  inspiration  and  stimulation,  as  already  illus- 
trated in  New  England.  To  supplement  and  assist  these  state 
federations  each  denomination  might  well  establish  a  special 
national  department  for  the  consideration  of  the  country  church 
problem  as  has  already  been  done  through  the  Presbyterian 
Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life.  The  opportunity 
of  the  rural  press,  especially  of  the  older  and  more  influential 
agricultural  journals,  for  putting  the  country  church  issue 
before  the  farming  population  is  another  self-evident  advantage 
for  assistance  as  yet  but  slightly  improved.  Reforms  of 
this  proportion,  however,  though  sure  to  come  eventually, 
are  somewhat  remote,  and  in  the  meantime  nothing  can  do 
more  in  furthering  the  interests  of  the  country  church  as  a 
social  institution  than  the  farmers'  own  organizations,  the 
Grange  and  the  farmers'  institute.  Neither  of  these  agencies, 
and  especially  the  Grange,  which  is  forbidden  to  become 
involved   in   religious   controversy,   can   afford  to  touch  this 


62    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

question  in  a  narrow,  sectarian  way,  but  both  might  well  con- 
sider it  from  a  large,  sociological  viewpoint.  If  the  church, 
as  is  so  often  declared,  is  to  become  the  leading  social  insti- 
tution of  the  rural  community,  certainly  such  discussion  is  not 
only  legitimate  but  necessary. 

Possibilities  for  Progress  in  the  Individual  Local  Church : 
Story  of  the  DuPage  Presbyterian  Church  in  Will  County, 
Illinois.  The  best  place  to  begin  with  reform  in  the  church, 
as  elsewhere,  is  at  home  in  the  individual  local  church.  More 
can  be  done  here  than  is  commonly  realized.  The  chief  need  is 
for  well-directed  leadership.  This  gives  the  country  pastor 
the  coveted  opportunity  for  service  which  he  seeks  so  eagerly 
but  so  often  overlooks.  If  the  church  is  weak  and  needs  to 
cooperate  with  another,  as  it  probably  does,  action  need  not 
be  delayed  until  some  superior  authority  recommends  union. 
*'The  truest  and  best  beginning  of  any  enterprise  of  church 
federation,"  says  Reverend  George  Frederick  Wells,  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  Churches,  "must  be  in  the  individual  com- 
munity." In  many  places  people  have  never  considered  the 
possibility  of  forming  a  union  church,  simply  through  lack  of 
thought  and  information.  If  a  community  is  narrow-minded 
and  petty,  and  uninformed  on  opportunities  for  progress,  whose 
fault  is  it  more  than  the  minister's? 

Aside  from  federation,  the  work  of  the  country  pastor 
must  look  to  the  upbuilding  of  an  institutional  or  social- 
service  church.  Institutionalism  should  not  be  overdone  in 
the  country  because  habits  of  cooperation,  rather  than  those 
of  individualism,  need  to  be  established  among  farmers.  Care 
must  be  exercised  at  all  times,  therefore,  to  keep  the  whole 
church  unified,  no  matter  how  many  clubs,  leagues,  societies, 
and  organizations  cluster  under  its  roof.  When  this  is  done, 
the  more  activity  developed  the  better.  One  of  the  most 
ideal  local  country  churches  in  the  United  States  is  the 
DuPage  Presbyterian  Church,  near  Plainfield,  Illinois.     This 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


63 


church  is  a  true  country  church,  being  located  out  on  the 
open  prairie  six  miles  from  any  town.  Reverend  Matthew  B. 
McNutt,  the  efficient  minister  who  is  chiefly  responsible  for 
the  unusual  developments  that  have  occurred  here  during  his 
twelve  years  of  residence  in  the  community,  is  a  leader  among 
men  and  has  already  found  a  national  reputation  thrust  upon 
him  because  of  the  helpful  suggestion  of  his  service.     The 


The  DuPage  Presbyterian  Church,  Will  County,  Illinois 


personal  account  of  his  work  as  quoted  here  from  a  leaflet 
issued  by  the  Young  People's  ]Missionary  ^Movement  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  will  be  a  revelation  to  many. 

I  resolved  first  of  all,  when  I  went  to  DuPage,  that  I  would  get 
next  to  the  boys  and  girls;  that  I  would  make  that  old  church  a  great 
center  of  attraction.  Notice  I  did  not  say  the  great  center.  I  do  not 
believe  in  the  church  attempting  to  do  everything  or  trying  to  do 
things   that   might  better   be  left  to   other   institutions.     But   I    would 


64    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

make  it  a  great  center  of  attraction;  a  hub  of  joys,  of  happy  memories 
and  associations  for  that  entire  community.  I  determined,  with  God's 
help,  to  make  it  an  indispensable  institution  to  every  man,  woman,  and 
child  within  its  reach. 

I  set  to  work,  first,  and  organized  an  old-fashioned  singing  school. 
It  might  have  been  anything  else  just  as  well — a  class  in  scientific 
farming,  animal  husbandry,  domestic  science,  or  nature  study.  I 
chose  the  singing  school  because  I  had  some  knowledge  of  music. 
The  idea  is  to  have  something  that  will  afford  a  point  of  contact 
between  the  leader  and  the  people,  and  also  to  get  everybody  inter- 
ested in  doing  something.  The  singing-school  met  one  night  in 
the  week,-  in  the  church.  There  was  some  good  musical  talent  among 
the  young  folks  and  this  new  enterprise  proved  to  be  a  great  hit.  Out 
of  it  grew  a  good  strong  chorus  choir,  a  male  quartet,  a  ladies'  quartet, 
an  orchestra,  and  some  good  soloists.  Besides,  it  improved  the  singing 
in  the  church  and  Sunday-school  a  hundred  per  cent. 

Next  we  started  what  we  called  a  gospel  chorus.  We  got  some 
live  new  song  books  and  went  singing  around  from  home  to  home. 
At  first  some  of  the  people  were  a  little  shy  of  the  gospel  chorus,  but 
soon  they  were  vying  with  each  other  to  see  who  could  secure  these 
singers.  The  chorus  went  to  the  homes  of  the  aged  who  were  too 
feeble  to  come  to  the  meeting-house.  It  sang  for  the  sick.  It  sang 
in  the  homes  of  those  who  never  heard  any  other  music. 

An  athletic  association  already  existed.  We  encouraged  the  boys  in 
their  field-day  sports.  Two  or  three  baseball  teams  were  organized. 
We  played  successfully  many  of  the  surrounding  towns  including 
Chicago.  We  never  challenged  the  Cubs  but  we  did  challenge  a  team 
from  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Presbyterian  Church,  Chicago,  and  beat 
them  on  our  grounds  one  Fourth  of  July,  20  to  o. 

The  church  building  was  not  suited  for  social  gatherings,  so  a 
series  of  sociables  was  planned  at  the  different  homes.  These  were  not 
the  money-making  kind ;  they  were  sociables  indeed.  The  older  people 
often  attended  and  engaged  in  the  play  with  the  young  folks.  Refresh- 
ments were  served  free.  At  these  gatherings  special  attention  was 
given  to  strangers  and  to  the  backward  boys  and  girls,  and  a  few  of 
us  always  had  upon  our  hearts  those  who  were  not  of  the  fold  of 
Christ.  They  grew  to  be  a  sociable  lot  of  folks,  I  tell  you !  They 
became  well  acquainted.  And  such  fellowships  !  Such  friendships  !  Such 
companionships !     And  all  centering  around  the  church. 

The  women  of  the  parish  had  long  had  a  missionary  society.    One  of 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


65 


the  mothers  said  to  me  one  day,  'Tastor,  don't  you  think  it  would  be 
a  good  thing  if  we  had  some  kind  of  a  little  social  circle  for  our 
girls?  They  are  just  aching  for  something  to  do."  I  said,  "Yes, 
let  us  have  it."  She  invited  them  to  her  home  one  afternoon  and  nine 
responded.  They  had  a  delightful  time  and  they  called  themselves 
*'The  Girls'  Mission  Band,"  deciding  to  meet  thereafter  once  a  month. 
In  these  little  gatherings  were  combined  devotional,  social,  and  educa- 
tional work,  and  club  features.  After  the  program  they  would  sew  and 
make  garments  for  the  poor  in  the  city.  A  meal  is  always  served 
at  these  meetings  by  the  hostess.  The  "Band"  grew  and  so  did  the 
girls.  When  they  became  women  they  changed  the  name  of  the  Band 
to  "The  Young  Women's  ^Missionary  Society,"  which  now  has  nearly 
forty  members.  As  the  young  women  marry,  they  are  transferred  to 
the  Women's  Society, 

A  similar  work  was  begun  for  the  young  men.  It  is  simply  the 
young  men's  class  in  the  Sunday-school  organized,  and  is  called  "The 
Young  Men's  Bible  Class."  It  has  upwards  of  fifty  members.  This 
class  meets  every  Sunday  morning  with  the  Sunday-school  for  Bible 
study  and  is  taught  by  the  pastor.  Besides,  it  meets  the  first  Tuesday 
of  each  month  for  fellowship,  fun,  business,  devotions,  and  for  literary 
and  social  purposes.  Much  has  to  be  combined  in  one  meeting,  because 
it  is  difficult  for  people  to  get  together  very  often  in  the  country. 

This  class,  and  the  Young  Women's  Class  have  become  the  strong 
right  arm  of  the  church.  We  are  now  selecting  our  teachers  and 
officers  for  the  Sunday-school  and  church  from  them. 

The  young  men  conduct  a  lecture  course,  not  for  pecuniary  profit, 
but  for  the  sole  and  only  purpose  of  furnishing  wholesome  entertain- 
ment for  the  community.  We  have  had  some  hundred-dollar  attrac- 
tions. The  entire  community  patronize  this  lecture  course  without 
exception  and  regardless  of  creed.  The  Catholics  and  the  German 
Lutherans  attend.  People  from  the  surrounding  towns  are  frequently 
seen  in  the  audiences,  driving  sometimes  ten  miles  or  more. 

Another  enterprise  which  the  young  men's  Bible  class  has  introduced 
and  supported  is  a  bureau  of  publicity.  The  boys  invested  in  a  small 
printing  press.  They,  with  the  assistance  of  the  pastor,  do  all  the 
church  printing  and  issue  a  local  church  paper. 

This  class  has  developed  some  very  good  speakers  and  singers. 
Under  its  auspices  open-air  gospel  and  song  services  are  held  in  a 
grove  in  the  summer  time  and  in  the  public  schoolhouses  in  winter. 
These  meetings  have  been  a  great  blessing  to  the  young  men  as  well 


66 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


as  to  those  to  whom  they  minister.  In  the  pastor's  absence  on  Sunday 
his  Bible  class  has  frequently  taken  charge  of  the  service,  three  or  four 
of  them  giving  short  gospel  talks. 

Our  Sunday-school  is  well  organized  and  graded  and  has  three 
hundred  members  including  the  Cradle  Roll  and  the  Home  Department. 

This  church  has  learned  the  value  of  inspirational  meetings.  Two 
principal  ones  are  held  each  year.  One  takes  place  on  New-year's  eve, 
when  the  whole  communit}^  old  and  young,  gather  at  the  church  as  one 
family  to  watch  the  old  year  die  and  to  welcome  in  the  new.     This  is 


Lecture  Course  Audience  at  the  DuPage  Church 


no  common  "watch  service."    The  evening  is  planned  to  overflow  with 
good  and  interesting  things. 

The  other  great  inspirational  meeting  is  held  at  the  close  of  the 
church  year.  It  is  an  all-day  meeting,  and  the  whole  countryside  turn 
out  to  help  round  up  the  year's  work.  The  ladies  serve  a  banquet  at 
noon,  free  of  charge.  There  is  always  good  music  on  these  occasions 
and  two  or  three  good  participants  from  outside  supplement  the  home 
talent.  These  big  meetings  are  a  great  uplift  to  the  country  people. 
They  promote  friendship  and  good  fellowship,  and  the  dead-level  gait 
ahvays  receives  a  severe  jolt. 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH  67 

Other  inspirational  meetings  are  held  for  particular  organizations  in 
the  church.  The  Young  Men's  Bible  Class  held  one  not  long  since, 
attended  by  one  hundred  young  men. 

Eventually  this  church  outgrew  the  old  building,  and  it  rose  up  and 
erected  a  new  one,  costing,  including  furnishings,  $10,000  in  money 
and  the  equivalent  of  another  thousand  in  hauling  which  the  farmers 
did  gratis.  Practically  all  the  money  was  subscribed  before  a  shovel- 
ful of  earth  was  moved  for  the  foundation.  No  offering  was  taken  at 
the  dedication  for  building  purposes  or  for  furnishings.  Every  person 
in  the  community  was  given  opportunity  to  help  build  the  new  church. 
And  all  responded  heartily.  The  Catholics  and  German  Lutherans 
contributed  to  the  building  fund  and  helped  to  haul  the  materials. 

The  new  structure  is  Gothic  in  design  and  is  built  of  brick.  The 
interior  is  finished  in  red  oak.  A  handsome  fresco  in  water-colors 
adorns  the  walls,  with  panels  of  burlap  below  the  surbase  molding. 
This  with  the  beautiful  art  glass  window^s  gives  the  interior  a  most 
pleasing  and  homelike  appearance.  The  floors  are  covered  with  cork 
carpet.  The  main  auditorium  has  a  bowl-shaped  floor  and  seats  three 
hundred  people.  The  assembly-room  of  the  Sunday-school  apartment, 
which  is  separated  from  the  auditorium  by  accordion  doors,  has  an 
additional  one  hundred  and  fifty  sittings.  There  are  fourteen  rooms 
in  all,  including  a  number  of  classrooms,  choir  and  cloak  rooms,  toilet, 
pastor's  study,  vestibule,  kitchen,  dining-hall,  cistern,  and  furnace  and 
fuel  rooms.  The  building  is  heated  with  hot  air  furnaces  and  lighted 
with  gas.  A  system  of  water-works  supplies  water  wherever  needed 
about  the  building. 

A  library  has  been  started  which  already  has  a  thousand  volumes.  It 
is  purposed  to  put  in  a  line  of  reference  books.  A  number  of  study 
courses  are  being  planned  in  scientific  agriculture,  civil  government, 
sociology,  nature  study,  and  domestic  science. 

There  have  been  no  evangelistic  services  in  this  church  by  profes- 
sional evangelists  for  ten  years.  Formerly,  this  was  a  favorite  method. 
But  there  is  not  another  ten  year  period  in  the  history  of  the  church 
that  shows  as  many  accessions  as  the  last  decade. 

The  Country  Teacher's  Attitude  and  Relation  to  the 
Church  Question.  The  attitude  of  the  country  teacher 
toward  church  interests  may  be  expressed  from  two  points 
of  view.  As  a  member  of  the  community  she  must  participate 
in  the  local  church  interests  of  the  immediate  neighborhood; 


68    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

as  a  leader  and  student  of  rural  social  conditions  she  must 
give  tliought  and  study  to  the  country  church  problem  as  a 
whole.  Ordinarily  the  first  of  these  requirements  is  well  ful- 
filled by  country  teachers.  It  is  rather  as  to  her  attitude  as 
a  student  of  rural  social  progress  that  the  average  country 
teacher  needs  enlightenment  on  church  matters.  Here  the 
difficulty  has  been  not  only  a  lack  of  consciousness,  but  a  lack 
of  information  and  assistance.  In  the  few  words  devoted  to 
the  consideration  of  this  aspect  of  the  problem  no  greater 
service  can  be  rendered  than  that  of  suggesting  connections 
through  which  this  information  may  be  obtained.  Aluch  good 
thought  on  this  subject  may  be  gathered  from  current  period- 
ical literature.  Some  of  the  best  of  these  articles  selected 
with  the  needs  of  country  teachers  particularly  in  mind  are 
listed  among  the  church  references  in  the  bibliography  of 
this  book.  Those  who  hope  to  effect  some  definite  local 
reform,  however,  will  need  further  information.  It  will  be 
necessary  in  the  first  place  to  know  something  of  the  latest 
development  in  rural  church  federation.  To  keep  in  contact 
with  this  movement  address  a  letter  to  the  secretary  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America,  as 
directed  in  the  rural  progress  directory  of  this  book,  request- 
ing a  copy  of  the  report  of  the  last  conference  and  stating  that 
special  information  is  desired  upon  country  church  federa- 
tion. As  a  general  clearing  house  for  information  upon  coun- 
try church  progress  and  for  numerous  leaflets,  address  Dr. 
Warren  H.  Wilson,  Superintendent  of  the  Presbyterian  De- 
partment of  Church  and  Country  Life,  at  156  Fifth  Avenue, 
New  York. 

Country  teachers  living  in  states  now  organized  for  church, 
federation  should  by  all  means  keep  in  contact  with  the  devel- 
opment of  the  movement  in  their  own  state,  and  those  living 
in  states  not  yet  organized  should  inform  themselves  con- 
cerning  the    federative   idea   so   as   to   hasten   the   approach 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


69 


of  better  harmony  and  saner  cooperation  among  the  various 
denominations.  Officers  of  these  state  federations  and  of 
other  country  church  organizations  may  be  found  in  the 
rural  progress  directory  of  this  book  or  may  be  obtained  from 
the  Federal  Council  of  Churches.  Because  of  its  pedagogical 
suggestion  and  efficient  leadership,  if  for  no  other  reason, 
every  country  teacher  should  study  the  work  of  the  County 
Department  of  the  Young  ]\Ien's  Christian  Association.  Com- 
munication with  this  field  of  activity  is  easily  possible.  A  let- 
ter to  Secretary  A.  E.  Roberts  of  the  International  Commit- 
tee, at  124  East  Twenty-eighth  Street,  New  York,  will  bring 
a  copy  of  the  county  work  register,  from  which  the  address 
of  every  state  and  county  secretary  may  be  obtained.  Corre- 
spondence with  these  officers  will  bring  leaflets,  bulletins,  and 
other  information  which  may  be  further  supplemented  by 
subscribing  for  Rural  Manhood,  the  official  publication  of  the 
Association. 

Another  reference  of  the  utmost  importance  for  country 
teachers  is  the  official  Report  of  the  Country  Life  Commission. 
Those  who  do  not  already  possess  a  copy  of  this  document 
should  immediately  send  ten  cents  to  the  Government  Print- 
ing Office  at  Washington  and  secure  one.  The  full  significance 
of  the  work  of  this  Commission  is  not  yet  half  realized  among 
farmers.  It  means  nothing  less  than  a  revolution  in  future 
country  life,  and  has  already  ushered  in  the  dawn  of  a  rural 
renascence.  Special  attention  is  given  to  rural  religious  con- 
ditions in  this  report,  and  the  few  pages  devoted  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  country  church  constitute  the  best  summary 
of  its  status  and  social  influence  yet  published. 

The  Coming  Unity  Among  Churches.  It  is  the  general 
impression  that  farmers  as  a  class  are  extremely  sectarian. 
That  this  is  frequently  true  in  individual  instances  must  be 
confessed ;  but,  upon  the  whole,  farmers  are  more  liberal- 
minded    in   matters   of   religion   than    is   commonly    realized. 


70 


COUNTRY  !LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


True,  the  old  farmer  was  conservative  in  all  things.  His 
environment  made  him  so.  But  the  new  farmer  is  a  man 
of  marked  spirituality  and  generous  charity.  These  new 
farmers  and  the  non-church  farmers,  many  of  them,  are 
people  who  are  ready  for  a  new  type  of  religion;  who  have 
outgrown  all  petty  creeds,  and  are  only  waiting  to  welcome 
the  religion  of  common  humanity.  Just  what  this  religion 
of  the  future  shall  be,  the  creeds  or  articles  of  belief  it  shall 
possess  or  not  possess,  cannot  now  be  determined ;  but  those 
who  believe  in  its  ultimate  triumph  and  in  the  responsibility 
of  the  country  church  for  fostering  its  spirit  will  be  glad  to 
read  in  conclusion  the  following  sentences  from  a  sermon  on 
'The  Coming  Unity,"  by  the  Reverend  Charles  F.  Aked,  for- 
merly of  New  York : 

"I  conceive  the  church  of  the  future  as  taking  from  all  the 
churches,  absorbing  the  best  for  which  all  the  churches  have 
always  stood,  losing  nothing  that  has  been  worth  retain- 
ing, and  doing  in  her  sphere  in  America  what  America  does 
in  her  own.  As  America  has  not  lost  in  producing  in  the 
American  that  which  is  best  in  the  Englishman  or  the  German 
or  the  Hollander,  so  the  church  will  not  willingly  lose  the 
Episcopalian's  reverence  for  order,  the  Presbyterian's  demand 
for  accuracy,  the  fire  and  fervor  of  the  Alethodist,  or  the  con- 
tribution of  the  Congregationalist  and  Baptist  to  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  And  the  product  will  be  not  an  Episcopalian 
Baptist,  or  a  Presbyterian  Methodist,  but  a  Christian,  without 
adjectives  and  without  limitations,  heir  of  all  the  churches  in 
the  foremost  files  of  time. 

"...  And  since  I  have  said  these  things,  I  may  as  well 
go  on  to  tell  you  a  dream  of  mine.  It  is  only  a  dream,  and 
perhaps  no  sufficient  number  of  persons  are  dreaming  the 
same  thing  at  the  same  time  to  afford  any  hope  that  it  will 
materialize.  'The  dreams  that  nations  dream  come  true  and 
shape  the  world  anew,'  but  perhaps  the  dream  of  an  individual 


THE  COUNTRY  CHURCH 


71 


counts  for  nothing.  Yet,  though  it  is  only  a  vision,  I  will 
cherish  it.  For  I  have  dared  to  dream  of  some  great  temple 
of  the  Living  God  wherein  shall  gather  for  worship  all  good 
men  and  good  women  who  desire  only  to  worship  in  spirit 
and  in  truth.  It  shall  not  be  Protestant  or  Catholic.  It  shall 
not  even  be  Aryan  or  Semite.  It  shall  be  built,  if  you  like,  by 
a  Christian  and  endowed  by  a  Jew.  It  shall  learn  from  the 
prophets  of  every  name  whom  God  has  sent  to  every  age 
and  people.  It  shall  hold  fellowship  with  all  who  have  purely 
lived  and  bravely  died.  It  shall  unite  all  who  love  for  the 
sake  of  all  who  suffer.  In  this  temple  of  my  dreams  many 
shall  come  from  the  East  and  from  the  West  and  sit  down 
with  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob ;  and  the  children  of  the 
Kingdom,  howsoever  called,  shall  in  no  wise  be  shut  out." 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  GRANGE 

The  Grange  as  an  Agency  for  Country  Life  Progress. 
The  Grange  is  an  organization  among  farmers  for  social  and 
educational  advancement.  Its  official  title  is  Patrons  of  Hus- 
handry.  Though  thousands  of  farmers  know  nothing  of  the 
Grange,  other  thousands  fully  appreciate  its  advantages,  and 
it  stands  preeminent  today  as  the  representative  of  American 
agricultural  interests.  For  this  reason  all  country  teachers  and 
farmers  should  know  of  its  purpose  and  work. 

Origin  and  Purpose.  The  Grange  was  conceived  and 
founded  by  Oliver  H.  Kelley,  a  native  of  Boston,  who  set- 
tled in  Minnesota  in  the  later  forties.  Mr.  Kelley  wrote 
extensively  for  the  agricultural  press  of  his  day,  and  through 
his  writing  and  general  initiative  earned  a  reputation  as  a 
leader  of  agricultural  thought.  In  1866  he  was  selected  by 
the  national  government  to  make  a  tour  of  inspection  through 
the  devastated  South  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  knowledge 
of  the  conditions  and  resources  of  that  section.  What  he  saw 
convinced  him  that  agricultural  cooperation  was  the  medium 
through  which  peace  and  harmony  would  ultimately  be 
restored.  Soon  after  his  return  he  interested  six  others  in 
the  new  idea,  and  the  "seven  founders  of  the  order"  then  per- 
fected and  completed  the  plans  of  the  Grange.  Its  original 
purpose  was  twofold :  To  advance  the  cause  of  education 
among  farmers,  and  to  cultivate  a  spirit  of  peace  and  brother- 
hood between  the  North  and  the  South.  The  second  of  these 
needs  has  passed,  but  the  first  is  innate  in  social  life  and  is 

72 


THE  GRANGE 


73 


the  rock  upon  which  the  Grange  continues  to  exist.  In  the 
very  beginning  the  new  order  assumed  national  proportions, 
for  in  1867  the  National  Grange  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry 
was  organized,  and  has  ever  since  continued  to  hold  annual 
sessions. 

The  best  conception  of  the  purpose  of  the  Grange  can  be 
gained  through  a  study  of  its  Declaration  of  Purposes,  which 
was  adopted  early  in  the  history  of  the  order,  and  is  still  in 
force : 

United  by  the   strong  and  faithful  tie  of  Agriculture,   we   mutually 
resolve  to  labor  for  the  good  of  our  order,  our  country,  and  mankind. 

We  heartily  endorse  the  motto:     "In  essentials,  unity;  in  non-essen- 
tials, liberty;  in  all  things,  charity." 

We  shall  endeavor  to  advance  our  cause  by  laboring  to  accomplish 
the  following  objects: 

To   develop   a   better  and   higher  manhood   and   womanhood   among 
ourselves.     To    enhance   the   comforts   and 
attractions   of   our   homes,   and    strengthen 
our  attachments  to  our  pursuits.     To   fos- 
ter mutual  understanding  and  cooperation. 

We  propose  meeting  together,  talking 
together,  working  together,  buying  together, 
selling  together,  and,  in  general,  acting  to- 
gether for  our  mutual  protection  and  ad- 
vancement, as  occasion  may  require.  We 
shall  avoid  litigation,  as  much  as  possible, 
by  arbitration  in  the  Grange.  We  shall  con- 
stantly strive  to  secure  entire  harmony, 
good  will,  and  vital  brotherhood  among 
ourselves,  and  to  make  our  order  per- 
petual. We  shall  earnestly  endeavor  to 
suppress  personal,  local,  sectional,  and 
national  prejudices,  all  unhealthy  rivalry, 
all  selfish  ambition.  Faithful  adherence  to 
these  principles  will  insure  our  mental, 
moral,  social,  and  material  advancement.  For  our  business  interests 
we  desire  to  bring  producers  and  consumers,  farmers  and  manufacturers, 
into  the  most  direct  and  friendly  relations  possible.     Hence  we  must 


Oliver  H.  Kelley 

Founder   of  the   Grange 


74 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


dispense  with  a  surplus  of  middlemen,  not  that  we  are  unfriendly  to 
them,  but  we  do  not  need  them.  Their  surplus  and  their  exactions 
diminish  our  profits. 

We  wage  no  aggressive  warfare  against  any  other  interests  what- 
ever. On  the  contrary,  all  our  acts  and  all  our  efforts,  so  far  as  busi- 
ness is  concerned,  are  not  only  for  the  benefit  of  the  producer  and  con- 
sumer, but  also  for  all  other  interests  that  tend  to  bring  these  two 
parties  into  speedy  and  economical  contact.  Hence  we  hold  that 
transportation  companies  of  every  kind  are  necessary  to  our  success, 
that  their  interests  are  intimately  connected  with  our  interests. 

We  are  opposed  to  such  spirit  and  management  of  any  corporation 
or  enterprise  as  tends  to  oppress  the  people,  and  rob  them  of  their 
just  profits.  We  are  not  enemies  of  capital,  but  we  oppose  the 
tyranny  of  monopolies.  We  long  to  see  the  antagonism  between 
capital  and  labor  removed  by  common  consent,  and  by  an  enlightened 
statesmanship  worthy  of  the  nineteenth  century.  We  are  opposed  to 
excessive  salaries,  high  rates  of  interest,  and  exorbitant  profits  in  trade. 

We  shall  advance  the  cause  of  education  among  ourselves  and  for 
our  children,  by  all  just  means  within  our  power.  We  especially  ad- 
vocate for  our  agricultural  and  industrial  colleges  that  practical  agri- 
culture, domestic  science,  and  all  the  arts  which  adorn  the  home  be 
taught  in  their  courses  of  study. 

We  emphatically  and  sincerely  assert  the  oft-repeated  truth  taught 
in  our  organic  law,  that  the  Grange — national,  state,  or  subordinate — 
is  not  a  political  party  organization.  No  Grange,  if  true  to  its  obliga- 
tions, can  discuss  political  or  religious  questions,  or  call  political  con- 
ventions, or  nominate  candidates,  or  even  discuss  their  merits  at  its 
meetings. 

We  always  bear  in  mind  that  no  one,  by  becoming  a  Patron  of 
Husbandry,  gives  up  that  inalienable  right  and  duty  which  belongs 
to  every  American  citizen,  to  take  a  proper  interest  in  the  politics  of 
his  country.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  his  duty  to  do  all  he  can  in  his 
own  party  to  put  down  bribery,  corruption,  and  trickery;  to  see  that 
none  but  competent,  faithful,  and  honest  men,  who  will  unflinchingly 
stand  by  our  industrial  interests,  are  nominated  for  all  positions  of 
trust;  and  to  have  carried  out  the  principle  which  should  always 
characterize  every  Patron,  that  the  office  should  seek  the  man  and  not 
the  man  the  ofiice. 

Last,  but  not  least,  we  proclaim  it  among  our  purposes  to  inculcate 


THE  GRANGE 


75 


a  proper  appreciation  of  the  abilities  and  sphere  of  woman,  as  is  indi- 
cated by  admitting  her  to  membership  and  position  in  our  order. 

History.  The  first  grange  in  the  world  was  organized 
April  i6,  1868,  at  Fredonia,  in  Chautauqua  County,  New 
York.  It  is  still  alive  and  thriving.  From  the  little  group  of 
early  pioneers  in   New  York,  the  new  order  spread  in  all 


B^^S^vS^' 

^^^m1|^^^-i^j*' II  *iiiti^"  ^,4^^^H^£'^^'*^^>^r^ 

i'j.-  i^Gdi^^HI 

.r  "•'%».  i-?,                         •'>.    •<-* 

-     'a 

r«HB 

'     1 

» 

W'KZl 

r  1  ^^iriiiir 

w§ 

c  .^*^- 

'-3^\ 

i 

__   ^"■♦^Bi 

8 

j 

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-V         —                      ■       "*- 

Centerville  Grange  Picnic,  Winnebago  Count}',  Illinois 

directions.  Its  early  growth  was  so  phenomenal  as  to  be 
almost  fatal.  In  the  year  1873,  over  27,000  granges  had  been 
established  in  twenty-eight  different  states,  and  the  member- 
ship was  over  half  a  million.  This  high  tide  of  early  prosper- 
ity, however,  was  due  to  a  misconception  of  true  Grange 
principles  on  the  part  of  many  who  joined.    Thousands  sought 


76    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

financial  betterment  under  the  protection  of  the  order,  and 
enrolled  for  what  ''there  was  in  it,"  expecting  it  to  serve  the 
ends  of  a  great  farmers'  trust.  Still  others  hoped  to  make  it 
a  ladder  of  political  ambition.  Needless  to  say,  these  mer- 
cenary and  personally  ambitious  advocates  were  soon  bitterly 
disillusioned,  and  through  their  experience  arose  the  disfavor 
and  contempt  under  which  the  organization  has  suffered,  and 
with  which  it  is  sometimes  still  regarded  by  those  who 
recall  the  reaction  of  its  early  history.  Hundreds  of  the  local 
granges  organized  at  this  time  soon  failed,  and  because  of 
these  failures  many  farmers  today  are  under  the  impression 
that  "the  Grange  is  dead."  But  the  Grange  is  not  dead  and 
has  never  been.  Even  while  the  foolish  financial  experi- 
ments in  the  West  were  succumbing  daily,  the  organization 
was  steadily  and  honestly  gaining  a  foothold  in  the  East,  espe- 
cially in  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  states,  whicn 
has  never  been  endangered. 

During  the  last  twenty  years,  a  new  and  firmer  growth 
has  repaired  all  the  old  losses.  The  increase  in  member- 
ship during  the  decade  following  1890  was  about  seventy-five 
per  cent,  while  that  of  the  year  1908  was  ten  per  cent.  Twenty- 
eight  states  were  represented  at  the  National  Grange  of  1910, 
and  the  order  is  now  established  in  thirty-five  states,  and 
enrolls  a  total  membership  of  over  one  million.  In  New 
York  alone,  the  state  reports  record  690  subordinate  and 
forty-five  county  granges,  enrolling  about  82,000  members. 
Those  who  imagine  the  Grange  is  dead  need  but  to  investigate 
a  few  statistics  relating  to  its  present  status  to  become  con- 
vinced of  their  error. 

Organization.  The  unit  of  organization  in  the  Patrons 
of  Husbandry  is  the  local  or  subordinate  grange.  A  subordi- 
nate grange  is  supposed  to  include  one  township,  or  to  cover 
the  area  within  a  five  or  six  mile  radius  of  its  location,  but 
the  amount  of  territory  involved  is  variable,  depending  wholly 


THE  GRANGE 


n 


upon  local  conditions.  Every  subordinate  grange  meets  at 
least  twice  a  month.  The  subordinate  granges  of  a  county,  or 
other  given  district,  often  organize  themselves  into  a  larger 
unit,  known  as  the  Pomona  Grange.  The  Pomona  Grange 
must  meet  at  least  quarterly.  Its  meetings  are  usually  occa- 
sions of  much  enthusiasm  and  are  often  converted  into  social 
rallies  and  campaigns  for  increased  membership  and  the  good 
of  the  order.  The  State  Grange,  as  the  name  indicates,  is  the 
state  representative  of  the  order.  It  holds  annual  meetings 
to  which  each  subordinate  grange  sends  delegates.  The 
National  Grange  is  the  authoritative  head  of  the  organization. 
It  convenes  once  a  year,  in  a  session  lasting  usually  about  ten 
days,  to  consider  matters  of  national  importance.  State  mas- 
ters and  their  wives,  or  husbands,  are  delegates  to  this  con- 
vention. A  special  feature  of  the  order,  now  coming  into 
prominence,  is  the  juvenile  grange,  a  subdivision  organized 
for  the  benefit  of  children.  Boys  and  girls  are  allowed  to 
join  the  subordinate  grange  when  fourteen  years  of  age,  but 
it  has  seemed  advisable  to  interest  them  in  the  movement 
even  younger,  and  the  plans  now  developing  for  such  work 
are  full  of  promise. 

The  head  official  of  a  grange,  whether  local,  county,  state,  or 
national,  is  the  master,  who  exercises  all  the  duties  of  a  presi- 
dent. Twelve  other  officers  are  required  to  handle  the  work  of 
the  ritual,  of  whom  the  lecturer  is  the  most  important.  It 
is  often  said,  and  with  truth,  that  the  success  of  a  grange 
depends  upon  the  lecturer.  In  fact,  the  work  and  responsi- 
bility of  the  organization  may  be  considered  in  two  phases: 
the  financial  and  business  side,  for  which  the  master  is  respon- 
sible, and  the  social  and  educational  side,  for  which  the  lec- 
turer must  provide.  The  lecturer  makes  the  programs,  plans 
the  socials  and  special  meetings,  introduces  most  of  the  new 
ideas  of  growth,  and  in  every  way  exercises  more  influence 
upon  the  order  than  any  other  individual.     The  ritual  is  a 


78    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

beautiful  and  impressive  ceremony  permeated  throughout  by 
an  exalted  religious  spirit  and  a  strong  love  of  nature.  It 
provides  seven  degrees,  the  first  four  being  conferred  in  the 
subordinate  grange,  the  fifth  in  the  Pomona,  the  sixth  in  the 
State,  and  the  last  in  the  National  Grange.  The  secrecy  of 
the  order  is  slightly  objectionable  to  some,  but  the  little 
secrecy  involved  relates  to  nothing  more  than  passwords  and 
a  few  fraternal  signs  which  need  be  feared  by  none.  A  minor 
point  of  grange  custom,  that  should  be  mentioned  for  its 
marked  influence  upon  members,  is  the  recess  or  social  hour. 
Nothing  about  the  organization  contributes  more  to  its  popu- 
larity and  power  than  this  visiting  period.  All  prosperous 
granges  ow^n  their  own  halls,  many  of  which  have  a  dining- 
room  and  kitchen. 

Work  and  Influence.  But  more  important,  by  far,  than 
the  history  and  plan  of  Grange  organization  is  its  work  and 
influence  for  the  social  and  educational  advancement  of  farm 
life.  "To  enumerate  the  achievements  of  the  Grange,"  says 
Kenyon  L.  Butterfield,  in  his  Chapters  in  Rural  Progress, 
"would  be  to  recall  the  progress  of  agriculture  during  the  last 
third  of  a  century."  The  Grange  as  an  organization  is  capable 
of  speaking  authoritatively  for  farm  interests.  This  it  has 
done  for  the  last  twenty-five  years,  touching  upon  questions 
of  both  national  and  international  significance.  The  national 
Department  of  Agriculture,  state  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations,  farmers'  institutes,  pure  food  laws,  the 
rural  delivery  of  mail,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
the  denatured  alcohol  bill,  and  the  postal  savings  bank,  are 
some  of  the  measures  that  trace  their  origin  and  development 
to  Grange  influence.  Among  the  present-day  issues  favored 
by  the  last  National  Grange  in  1912  were  a  parcels  post, ' 
woman  suffrage,  stringent  forest  reserve  laws,  the  improve- 
ment of  waterways,  and  federal  aid  for  road  building.  Thus, 
the  Grange  exerts  legislative  influence,  but  it  is  in  no  sense 


THE  GRANGE 


79 


a  political  party.  Any  political  ambitions  ever  nourished 
within  the  order  have  invariably  proved  fatal,  and  a  question 
is  now  shunned  the  moment  it  becomes  a  political  issue.  This 
policy  is  necessarily  restricting,  but  experience  has  shown  its 


W^M 

"^      ^^H 

'*••■*  '.-•'• 

-     ^  ^  , 

Farmers'  Club,  Logan  County,  Illinois 

Such  a  farmers'  club  may  be  easily  converted  into  a  subordinate  Grange 

wisdom.  National  Grange  opinion  is  now  crystallized  in  the 
publication  of  a  paper,  the  Kational  Grange  Monthly,  which  not 
only  advocates  movements  of  progress  but  summarizes  the 
work  done  by  the  order  throughout  the  country. 

In  a  financial  and  business  way,  the  Grange  still  does  some 
things,  though  the  stores,  factories,  wholesale  houses,  and 
financial  schemes  of  its  early  progenitors  are  now  efforts  of 
the  past.  In  several  states,  especially  in  New  York  and 
New  Hampshire,  strong  insurance  companies  now  operate 
under  Grange  control,  while  in  Kansas,  provision  for  cyclone 


8o    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

insurance  meets  a  frequently  felt  need.  Pennsylvania  has 
recently  undertaken  a  Grange  banking  system  which  has  stead- 
ily grown  in  favor  and  has  resulted  thus  far  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  fourteen  national  banks.  Cooperative  buying  is 
practiced  quite  extensively  in  Alichigan  and  Maine,  though 
cooperative  selling  has  so  far  proved  unsuccessful.  In  Wis- 
consin and  other  dairy  states,  Grange  creameries  and  cheese 
factories  are  not  uncommon,  while  telephone  lines  belonging 
to  the  order  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every  state  where  the 
society  is  organized. 

But  the  educational  and  social  work  of  the  Grange  is  the 
chief  source  of  its  life  and  existence,  and  is  of  far  greater 
importance  than  any  other  effort  undertaken  by  it.  Wherever 
the  Grange  is  wtU  established,  it  revolutionizes  the  life  of 
a  community.  The  very  nature  of  the  gatherings,  with  their 
discussions  and  recesses,  all  permeated  with  the  spirit  of  fra- 
ternity, banishes  isolation  and  its  evil  effects.  In  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  order  agriculture  is  particularly  empha- 
sized. But  Grange  education  is  not  limited  to  matters  of  agri- 
culture alone.  It  covers  all  fields  of  mental  activity,  and 
science,  history,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts  are  given  due 
prominence  on  Grange  programs.  The  organization  virtually 
becomes  a  school,  and  many  members  acknowledge  it  as  the 
source  of  their  greatest  educational  opportunity.  Ability  to 
write,  to  think  clearly,  and  to  stand  up  and  express  thought 
accurately,  soon  becomes  well  developed  in  experienced  "gran- 
gers." In  the  broader  fields  of  educational  advancement,  the 
Grange  has  also  done  much.  Agricultural  education,  the  con- 
solidation of  schools,  and  all  other  movements  of  vital  educa- 
tional significance  have  always  had  its  hearty  support.  Most 
state  granges  now  support  standing  educational  committees 
which  study  the  educational  conditions  of  the  state  and  report 
annually  to  the  order. 

But  no  discussion  of  the  work  and  influence  of  the  Grange, 


THE  GRANGE  8l 

however  inadequate,  is  complete  without  some  consideration 
of  what  it  has  done  for  women.  Of  all  fraternal  orders  the 
Grange,  so  far  as  known,  was  the  first  to  recognize  women 
fully.  Other  orders  have  their  allied  organizations  for 
women,  but  it  remained  for  the  Grange  to  cast  aside  all 
shackles  of  prejudice  and  first  admit  them  to  full  member- 
ship. This  movement  was  a  great  forward  step,  especially  at 
the  time  of  its  adoption  in  1867,  and  the  credit  of  its  incor- 
poration is  due  to  the  leading  w^oman  spirit  among  the  early 
founders,  Miss  Caroline  Hall.  All  the  offices  of  the  Grange, 
as  previously  stated,  are  open  to  w-omen,  and  four  can  be 
held  by  them  only.  The  lecturers  are  usually  women,  which 
places  much  of  the  responsibility  of  the  order  upon  women. 
The  office  of  state  lecturer  in  ^lichigan  has  been  filled  for 
vears  bv  women,  who  have  revolutionized  the  educational  work 
of  the  organization  during  their  service.  For  several  years 
Minnesota  has  elected  a  woman  for  state  master.  Among 
other  early  provisions  that  have  had  great  effect  upon  Grange 
w^omen  is  the  system  of  representation  established.  Every  del- 
egate to  both  the  state  and  the  national  Grange  is  a  dual  dele- 
gate, a  man  and  his  wife,  or  a  woman  and  her  husband,  and 
the  influence  of  the  traveling  this  necessitates  is  apparent 
among  the  women  of  Grange  circles  everywhere.  The  Na- 
tional Grange  has  repeatedly  and  unanimously  indorsed  woman 
suffrage.  Women  serve  on  Grange  committees,  freely  pro- 
claim their  opinions  on  Grange  floors,  and  in  all  things  and 
at  all  times  have  the  full  support  and  championship  of  the 
order  in  matters  relating  to  their  w^elfare. 

The  Subordinate  Grange  at  Work:  Magnolia  Grange, 
Putnam  County,  Illinois.  Perhaps  the  best  understanding 
of  Grange  work  and  influence  can  be  gained  through  the 
study  of  a  typical  subordinate  grange.  Magnolia  Grange,  in 
Putnam  County,  Illinois,  is  a  fair  type  of  the  hundreds  of 
subordinate  granges   now   at  work  over  the  country.     This 


82 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


grange  is  one  of  the  few  survivors  of  those  organized  during 
the  high  tide  of  Grange  prosperity  in  1873. 

The  people  of  the  INlagnoHa  community  are  chiefly  enter- 
prising Friends,  or  Quakers,  who  emigrated  to  Illinois  in  the 
early  pioneer  days  from  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  With  them 
they  brought  not  only  a  true  appreciation  of  the  value  of  edu- 
cation, but  a  proper  conception  of  the  social  basis  upon  which 
all  education  rests.  They  had  known  the  congenial  social 
farm  life  across  the  Alleghanies,  and  they  determined  to  trans- 


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Magnolia  Grange  Fair,  Putnam  County,  Illinois 
Fairs  of  this  type  become  great  forces  for  the  redirection  of  country  life 


plant  the  same  spirit  to  the  prairies  of  the  West.  This  they 
have  done  through  the  development  of  three  agencies,  the 
church,  the  school,  and  the  Grange,  of  which  the  Grange,  in 
their  opinion,  has  been  the  most  influential. 

Meetings  of  the  organization  are  held  on  alternate  Satur- 
day afternoons  in  the  Grange  hall,  a  comfortable,  convenient 
building  provided  for  the  purpose,  and  located  on  one  of  the 
scenic  spots  in  the  township.  This  building  is  simply  and 
artistically  furnished  with  chairs,   rugs,  reading  tables,  pic- 


THE  GRANGE  83 

tures,  cases  for  books  and  museum  collections,  and  an  organ. 
It  is  further  provided  with  a  dining-room  and  kitchen  whose 
ranges,  cooking  utensils,  dishes,  and  silverware,  make  possible 
the  famous  "Grange  dinners"  so  popular  throughout  the 
countryside.  The  programs  of  the  meetings  are  prepared  and 
printed  a  year  in  advance,  each  member  appearing  for  at  least 
one  number  during  the  year.  Papers,  debates,  musical  num- 
bers, and  the  ritualistic  work  form  a  chief  part  of  these  pro- 
grams, but  their  most  helpful  feature  is  the  open  discussion 
of  questions  to  which  time  is  allotted  at  every  meeting.  This 
question-box  is  very  simple  in  its  management,  the  written 
questions  being  read  by  the  lecturer  and  addressed  to  particu- 
lar individuals  for  answer.  Others  who  desire  may  partici- 
pate in  the  discussion,  but  each  speaker  is  required  to  stand 
on  his  feet  and  speak  directly  to  his  hearers.  This  practice  has 
contributed  more  to  the  educational  growth  of  the  members 
and  developed  more  self-reliance  among  the  men  and  women 
of  the  community  than  any  other  single  force  in  their  lives. 
The  written  work,  also,  has  been  especially  educative  in  its 
requirements,  particularly  among  the  women  and  younger 
members  of  the  organization.  Among  the  topics  treated  on 
recent  programs  are  the  following,  which  show  the  range  and 
character  of  the  work  done :  opportunities  in  farming,  system 
on  the  farm,  food  and  food  adulterants,  decoration  in  the 
farm  home,  woman's  coming  greatness,  the  hurry  habit,  prac- 
tical philanthrophy,  and  the  farmer's  civic  duties. 

The  social  and  recreative  side  of  Grange  influence  is  also 
well  exemplified  here.  Receptions,  special  programs,  lec- 
tures, big  dinners,  candy-pulls,  picnics,  and  evening  gatherings 
are  common  occurrences.  These  not  only  inculcate  interest 
and  life  in  the  mature  members  of  the  order,  but  prove 
attractive  to  the  young  people,  whose  youth  and  fresh  inter- 
ests are  the  greatest  source  of  strength  in  any  healthy  grange. 

The  chief  business  venture  undertaken  by  the   Magnolia 


84    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Grange  at  present  is  the  annual  ''Grange  Fair."  This  fair 
supplants  the  usual  county  fair.  Special  buildings  and  sheds 
have  been  built  on  the  grounds  for  its  convenience.  Among 
these  is  a  large  floral  hall  where  fruit,  vegetable,  and  grain 
exhibits  are  made  each  year.  Sewing,  canned  fruit,  bread, 
cake,  and  other  special  household  products  are  also  given  due 
attention.  Nor  are  the  children  neglected.  School  exhibits 
always  form  an  important  part  of  this  display,  and  special 
prizes  are  awarded  for  individual  pieces  of  educational  work. 
Perhaps  the  most  popular  entries  are  those  relating  to  live 
stock  and  the  management  of  horses.  Prizes  are  given  for 
rapid  hitching  and  unhitching,  for  good  horsemanship  and 
riding,  and  for  all  other  activities  connected  with  the  control 
of  horses.  This  brings  in  hundreds  of  young  people  who 
thus  learn  to  dignify  the  simple,  homely  tasks  of  the  farm, 
and  who,  through  weeks  and  months  of  preparation,  center 
their  interest  and  attention  upon  farm  topics.  Fairs  of  this 
type  become  valuable  agencies  for  the  proper  redirection  of 
country  life. 

The  influence  of  the  Magnolia  Grange  throughout  the  forty 
years  since  its  establishment  cannot  be  computed.  The  Clear 
Creek  neighborhood,  as  the  community  is  locally  called,  is 
always  known  and  remembered  by  all  who  come  in  contact 
with  it  for  its  unusual  progressiveness  and  sincere  social 
spirit.  The  silent  force  of  Grange  influence,  so  long  at  work 
here,  has  recently  taken  material  form  in  the  erection  of  the 
John  Swaney  Consolidated  School,  described  in  Chapter  VIIL 
This  school,  with  its  beautiful  large  building,  its  laboratories, 
library,  assembly  hall,  experiment  plots,  and  campus  of  twenty- 
four  acres,  originated  in  the  Grange.  Mr.  John  Swaney, 
whose  name  it  bears,  and  who  donated  the  land  on  which  it 
stands,  has  been  a  most  active  member  of  the  order  for  over 
thirty-five  years,  and  it  is  beyond  question  that  without  the 
Grange  there  could  have  been  no  John  Swaney  School. 


THE  GRANGE 


85 


Words  of  Warning  to  the  Grange.  But,  with  all  its 
splendid  progress  and  healthy  growth,  the  Grange,  like  all 
other  institutions,  may  make  mistakes.  Two  errors  of  present 
policy  have  been  recently  pointed  out  by  President  Kenyon 
L.  Butterfield  of  the  ^lassachusetts  College  of  Agriculture. 
One  of  these  is  the  old  danger  of  allowing  anti-agriculturists, 
or  those  not  interested  in  farming,  to  join.  This  practice  is 
said  to  be  steadily  growing  in  eastern  states  and  to  be  under- 
mining the  unity  and  harmony  of  the  order.  The  other  danger 
named  by  President  Butterfield,  and  a  more  general  one,  is 
that  of  allowing  the  local  grange  to  become  a  small  clique 
or  self-centered  group  in  the  neighborhood,  rather  than  a  true 
community  institution,  working  for  the  common  welfare  of 
both  members  and  non-members.  These  words  of  warning 
from  the  leading  rural  sociologist  of  the  nation,  who  is  also  a 
member  of  the  Grange,  certainly  merit  the  consideration  and 
reflection  of  every  Grange  worker  who  has  the  welfare  of  the 
order  and  the  best  development  of  farm  life  at  heart. 

Farmers'  Clubs.  Farmers'  clubs  have  been  organized  in 
many  sections  of  the  country  and  have  been  found  to  fulfill 
well  the  demand  for  social  and  educational  cooperation  among 
farmers.  Their  efficiency  for  this  purpose,  however,  seldom 
compares  with  that  of  a  prosperous  grange.  All  that  the  club 
can  possibly  do,  the  subordinate  grange  does,  and  more.  For 
while  farmers'  clubs  may  become  agencies  of  pleasant 
social  relationship  and  great  educational  advancement,  they 
are  generally  limited  to  local  influence,  and  the  broader  rela- 
tionships represented  in  the  Grange  by  the  state  and  national 
divisions  have  no  parallel  in  their  organization.  In  a  dormant 
or  prejudiced  community,  however,  it  is  frequently  very  much 
easier  to  start  a  club  than  to  establish  a  grange.  Later,  with 
the  help  of  a  deputy  or  the  state  master,  after  the  members 
are  sufficiently  prepared  to  see  the  advantages  of  Grange  or- 
ganization, such  a  club  may  be  converted  into  a  subordinate 


86 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


grange.  The  late  Superintendent  Frank  Hall,  of  the  Illinois 
State  Farmers'  Institute,  once  said  that  the  establishment  of 
at  least  one  farmers'  club  in  every  township  of  Illinois  would 
make  inconceivable  changes  in  the  conditions  of  farm  life  over 
the  state;  but  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  the  establishment  of  a 
subordinate  grange  in  each  township  would  show  even  greater 
results,  as  all  who  understand  the  full  breadth  and  possibilities 
of  grange  organization  can  appreciate. 


Harvesting  Picnic,  Farmers'  Clubs  of  De  Kalb  County,  Illinois 


One  of  the  best  examples  of  what  is  possible  in  the  way  of 
farmers'  club  development  is  to  be  found  in  the  work  of 
Mr.  H.  H.  Parke,  a  local  farmer  and  institute  director  of 
DeKalb  County,  Illinois.  In  writing  of  his  efforts,  Mr.  Parke 
says: 

During  the  fall  and  winter  of  1910  in  DeKalb  County,  seven  Town- 
ship  Farmers'   Clubs,   with   a   total   membership   of  over   six   hun4red 


THE  GRANGE  87 

farmers,  merchants  and  bankers,  were  organized.  These  are  directly 
associated  with  the  County  Farmers'  Institute  by  a  director  from  each 
club,  thus  forming  a  much  stronger  and  more  effective  organization. 
Each  member  becomes  an  integral  part  of  the  County  Farmers'  Insti- 
tute and  is  cemented  to  it  by  a  membership  fee  of  $1.00.  The  ultimate 
object  is  to  establish  a  farmers'  club  in  each  township  in  the  county. 

The  purpose  of  these  clubs  is  to  promote  the  work  of  the  Farmers' 
Institute,  to  more  rapidly  disseminate  agricultural  information,  and  to 
establish  community  centers  for  the  discussion  of  community  problems. 
Each  club  aims  to  hold  about  one  meeting  a  month.  In  all  twenty-six 
meetings  have  been  held  within  the  last  five  months.  The  attendance 
of  each  meeting  has  varied  from  one  hundred  to  five  hundred  en- 
thusiastic people.  The  programs  cater  to  the  interests  of  a  rural  or- 
ganization. Annually  each  club  holds  an  election  and  banquet  with  a 
suitable  program  for  the  occasion. 

These  clubs,  less  than  a  year  old,  are  already  harvesting  results. 
They  are  reaping  the  rewards  of  organized  effort.  Renewed  interests 
and  more  intelligent  direction  of  farm  operations  are  marked  in  the 
vicinities  of  the  clubs.  One  finds  fewer  weeds  in  the  fence  corners, 
cleaner  lawns,  more  neatly  dressed  families,  more  pride  in  every  way;  a 
better  social  spirit  exists ;  distances  between  farms  have  been  blotted 
out  by  a  more  neighborly  feeling. 

Social,  moral  and  educational  standards  have  been  raised.  More 
cooperative  undertakings  have  arisen  among  the  club  members.  In  two 
or  three  instances  the  standard  of  political  officials  has  been  raised. 
One  club  officer  has  interested  the  boys  in  his  township  in  growing 
corn  by  offering  $25.00  for  the  best  acre  of  corn. 

Another  club  member,  one  of  our  earnest  and  most  tactful  workers, 
planned  a  farmers'  picnic  with  the  apparent  purpose  of  getting  his  ten- 
acre  field  of  wheat  harvested.  This  picnic  was  advertised  far  and  wide, 
in  local  and  in  state  papers.  Each  picnicker  was  permitted  to  bring  his 
choice  of  weapons  for  attacking  the  wheat.  It  was  a  gala  day.  The 
white-haired  pioneer  brought  his  sickle;  the  middle-aged  man  the  self- 
rake  reaper  and  the  Marsh  harvester,  and  the  young  man  the  self 
binder,  the  masterpiece  of  modern  invention.  The  inspiration  of  the 
meeting  cannot  be  over-estimated. 

One  of  the  strongest  forces  at  work  in  the  clubs  is  the  spirit  of 
organization  that  pervades  the  atmosphere.  Minor  and  more  local 
organizations,  social  and  educational  in  nature,  are  springing  into  ex- 
istence.   Each  one  forms  a  center  for  the  exchange  of  ideas.    They  are 


88    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

stepping  stones  to   community  building,   and  every  possible   assistance 
and  encouragement  should  be  given  them. 

Cooperation  between  the  Grange  and  the  Country  School 

Since  this  book  is  prepared  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  country 
teachers,  it  is  appropriate  to  conclude  this  chapter  by  empha- 
sizing the  teacher's  opportunity  for  awakening  a  greater 
appreciation  of  the  advantages  of  social  and  educational  coop- 
eration among  farmers.  Of  all  individuals  in  the  country 
community,  none,  as  set  forth  later,  are  more  naturally 
expected  or  better  placed  to  assume  the  responsibility  of  lead- 
ership than  the  teacher.  It  therefore  devolves  upon  country 
teachers  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  work  and  purposes  of 
the  great  socializing  agencies  now  playing  an  important  part 
in  the  development  of  American  farm  life,  and  to  impart  this 
information  as  thoroughly  as  they  impart  the  subject-matter 
of  arithmetic  or  history.  Of  these  agencies,  none  is  more 
important  than  the  Grange,  and  country  teachers,  being  of 
late  years  admitted  to  membership,  should  join  the  Grange 
when  opportunity  affords,  and  do  what  they  can  toward  the 
establishment  of  new  local  orders. 

Relationship  with  the  officials  of  the  Grange  may  be  estab- 
lished by  writing  for  a  sample  copy  of  the  National  Grange 
Monthly,  which  is  published  in  Westfield,  Massachusetts. 
From  this  publication  can  be  obtained  the  name  of  the  National 
Grange  master,  who  may  then  be  addressed  for  a  copy  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  last  National  Grange.  The  national  mas- 
ter at  the  present  time  (1912)  is  ]\Ir.  Oliver  Wilson,  of  Peoria, 
Illinois,  but  as  the  office  is  elective,  a  more  permanent  medium 
of  connection  through  the  national  paper  is  suggested.  Every 
volume  of  annual  proceedings  contains  the  name  and  address 
of  each  state  master,  who  may  then  be  asked  for  further  infor- 
mation, and  whose  fidelity  to  the  order  will  always  make  him 
eager  to  cooperate  in  the  organization  of  new  granges.  Assist- 
ance can  thus  be  directly  obtained  from  the  state  master,  or 


THE  GRANGE 


89 


from  a  deputy  to  whom  he  will  refer,  and  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  the  undertaking  is  assured.  Teachers  need  not 
trouble  themselves  with  the  details  of  organization.  Organ- 
izers especially  trained  and  fitted  for  this  will  be  sent  by  the 
state  master.  It  is  rather  the  teacher's  task  to  prepare  the 
way,  and  arouse  a  desire  for  such  organization.  All  state 
granges  publish  literature  which  may  be  procured  and  dis- 
tributed to  create  a  Grange  sentiment. 


CHAPTER  V 

FARMERS'  INSTITUTES  AND  THE  AGRICUL- 
TURAL PRESS 

Farmers'  Institutes  as  an  Agency  for  Country  Life 
Progress.  Crop  rotation,  nitrogen  producing  bacteria,  and 
the  fertilization  of  soils  are  today  household  expressions  in 
every  farm  home.  Their  utterance  would  have  conveyed  but 
little  meaning,  however,  to  the  average  farmer  of  forty 
years  ago.  This  means  that  great  strides  have  been  made 
in  the  popular  dissemination  of  agricultural  knowledge  during 
the  last  few  decades.  It  means  that  the  mass  of  American 
farmers  have  developed  from  imitating  tillers  of  the  soil  into 
independent,  responsible  agriculturists.  In  this  evolution  no 
agency  has  been  more  effective  than  the  farmers'  institute. 

Origin  and  History  of  Farmers'  Institutes.  It  is  not  the 
purpose  here  to  give  a  detailed  history  of  the  farmers'  insti- 
tute but  rather  to  emphasize  a  few  facts  necessary  to  its  bet- 
ter understanding  as  an  agency  of  progress  in  the  expansion 
of  farm  life.  Typical  farmers'  institutes  as  we  know  them 
today  are  a  product  of  the  last  twenty-five  years.  Unlike 
the  Grange,  the  early  beginnings  of  the  institute  movement 
developed  so  gradually  and  obscurely  that  its  origin  is  hard 
to  trace.  Its  first  impetus  seems  to  have  come  from  numerous 
farmers'  clubs  and  agricultural  societies  organized  through 
the  East  early  in  the  history  of  the  country.  The  one  point 
of  especial  interest  concerning  its  origin  is  the  fact  that  it 
sprang  directly  from  the  felt  needs  and  demands  of  the 
people. 

In  1785  there  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  an  agricultural 

90 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES 


91 


society  known  as  the  Philadelphia  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Agriculture.  This  was  probably  the  first  organization  of 
its  kind  in  this  country,  though  New  York  claims  to  have 
maintained  more  than  a  dozen  similar  societies  over  a"  century 
ago,  and  authentic  records  prove  the  existence  of  a  thriving 
farmers'  club  in  Rockingham,  New  Hampshire,  as  early  as 
1 8 14.  In  ]\Iaine,  also,  local  agricultural  interests  were  organ- 
ized early,  and  by  1833  farmers'  clubs  were  common.  One 
of  the  most  interesting  of  these  early  societies,  known  as  the 
Farmers'  Club  of  Sandy  Spring,  was  organized  at  Brook 
Grove,  Maryland,  in  1844.  This  club  is  remarkable  in  that 
from  the  date  of  its  origin  to  the  present  time  it  has  met 
regularly  with  only  six  omissions  and  has  kept  full  records 
covering  the  transactions  of  these  years. 

Massachusetts  was  nattirallv  among:  the  earliest  states  to 
further  the  development  "(Si  the  farmers'  institute  idea.  The 
first  action  in  this  direction  was  brought  about  here  through 
the  efforts  of  the  ^Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Agriculture,  which  was  organized  in  1792.  Official  atten- 
tion was  not  given  to  the  work  here,  however,  until  1852, 
when  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  the 
first  year  of  its  establishment,  appointed  a  committee  to  con- 
sider the  promotion  of  agricultural  interests  in  the  state  by 
means  of  public  lectures.  At  the  next  meeting  of  the  board, 
in  1853,  Dr.  Hitchcock,  of  Amherst  College,  who  had  been 
favorably  impressed  with  the  idea  of  institutes  among  teachers, 
read  a  paper  on  farmers'  institutes  in  which  he  advocated 
similar  organizations  for  farmers  and  outlined  a  suggestive 
course  of  lectures.  This  was  probably  the  first  time  that 
the  term  institute  had  been  applied  to  a  gathering  of  farmers. 
Notwithstanding  the  practicability  of  this  suggestion,  the 
matter  was  legally  neglected  by  the  state  until  1879,  when 
laws  requiring  the  convention  of  such  agricultural  gatherings 
were  finally  enacted. 


92 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


The  history  of  the  movement  in  Ohio  is  also  significant, 
not  only  because  of  its  early  development  but  because  the 
present  institute  system,  extending  the  work  to  all  the  coun- 
ties of  a  state,  matured  here.  An  early  pioneer  of  agricultural 
education,  Dr.  N.  S.  Townsend,  who  later  became  dean  of  the 
State  Agricultural  College,  seems  to  have  conceived  the  idea 
of  farmers'  institutes  about  1845,  even  earlier  than  Dr.  Hitch- 
cock, of  Massachusetts.  According  to  his  own  account  the 
plan  was   suggested  to  him  through  medical   clinics.     Since 


Midsummer  Farmers'  Institute,  Illinois  College  of  Agriculture,  Urbana 


there  were  then  but  eighty-four  miles  of  railroad  in  Ohio, 
and  the  present  system  of  institutes  was  wholly  impractical. 
Dr.  Townsend  labored  for  years  with  unflagging  zeal  for  the 
promulgation  of  his  idea  through  farmers'  clubs  and  agricul- 
tural societies.  It  was  chiefly  through  his  efforts  that  these 
organizations  and  others  of  a  similar  nature  developed  so  rap- 
idly and  effectively  in  Ohio,  and  eventually  came  to  mold 
the  character  of  the  permanent  state  system  of  farmers'  insti- 
tutes by  making  the  county  the  unit  of  organization. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  the  accounts  given  here  that 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES  93 

Massachusetts  and  Ohio  were  alone  in  the  development  of 
the  farmers'  institute.  Similar  pioneer  growths  had  been 
planted  simultaneously  in  all  the  eastern,  and  many  of  the 
northern  states.  ]\Iaine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Con- 
necticut, Maryland,  and  Pennsylvania,  in  the  East,  and  Alichi- 
gan,  Iowa,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Wisconsin,  farther  west, 
were  all  active  early  in  the  history  of  the  movement  and 
contributed  much  that  was  original  and  effective  in  its  un- 
folding. New  Hampshire,  in  the  early  seventies,  conducted 
"public  meetings"  that  did  not  differ  materially  from  the 
meetings  now  generally  known  as  farmers'  institutes.  In  Con- 
necticut, a  notable  event  connected  with  the  development  of 
the  work  was  a  four  weeks'  agricultural  convention  held  at 
New  Haven,  in  1869,  under  the  auspices  of  Yale  University. 
Michigan,  in  1861,  passed  a  law  whereby  the  State  Board  of 
Agriculture  might  provide  winter  courses  of  lectures  for 
others  than  students  of  the  State  Agricultural  College.  Thus 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  was  probably  the  first  edu- 
cational institution  in  this  country  to  receive  legal  authority 
for  carrying  instruction  to  farmers. 

In  Illinois  the  first  institute  of  which  authentic  records 
appear  was  held  in  1869,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Illinois 
Industrial  University  at  Champaign,  the  institution  which 
later  became  the  State  University  and  Agricultural  College. 
This  was  one  of  the  earliest  large  agricultural  gatherings  in 
the  Middle  West.  "Thus  was  inaugurated,"  says  Dr.  L.  D. 
Morse,  then  secretary  of  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Society, 
"a  new  and  most  important  movement  in  western  agricultural 
education." 

Organization  of  Farmers'  Institutes.  Unlike  the  Grange, 
the  farmers'  institute  is  not  an  elaborate  scheme  carefully 
designed  and  worked  out  by  a  good  organizer.  It  is  the 
outgrowth  of  many  minds.  The  Grange  may  be  said  to  have 
begun  nationally  and  worked  down,  while  the  farmers'  insti- 


94    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

tute  began  locally  and  worked  up.  Its  democratic  and  diverse 
origin  through  the  development  of  farmers'  clubs,  agricultural 
societies,  and  other  local  organizations  accounts  for  the  inter- 
esting fact  that  no  two  states  have  institutes  managed  in 
just  the  same  way.  The  different  types  of  management  may 
be  roughly  classified,  however,  under  two  general  heads : 
(i)  those  under  government  control;  (2)  those  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  state  agricultural  college  or  experiment  station. 

Governmental  control  is  of  four  general  kinds.  It  may 
place  the  institutes  under  the  direction  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  as  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York ;  or  in 
the  hands  of  an  independent  state  officer,  as  in  Wisconsin ; 
or  it  may  direct  them  under  county  organization,  as  in  Illi- 
nois and  Iowa ;  or  through  the  agency  of  agricultural  societies, 
as  in  Ohio.  The  states  of  the  Union  are  almost  evenly  divided 
under  these  two  general  types  of  administration.  In  the  older 
eastern  states  where  the  work  originated  chiefly  before  the 
day  of  agricultural  colleges  governmental  control  prevails; 
but  in  the  West  and  Middle  West  college  control  is  more 
common. 

In  1903,  the  importance  which  farmers'  institute  work  had 
assumed  was  recognized  by  the  national  government  in  the 
appointment  of  a  Farmers'  Institute  Specialist  in  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  This  official  gives  all  his 
time  to  the  study  and  promotion  of  farmers'  institutes  through- 
out the  country  and  acts  not  only  as  a  general  organizer 
and  adviser  for  the  several  states  but  collects  statistics,  pub- 
lishes bulletins,  and  studies  agricultural  education  in  foreign 
countries.  The  creation  of  this  office  placed  farmers'  insti- 
tutes on  a  national  basis  corresponding  to  the  national  divi- 
sion of  Grange  organization.  Each  state  is  centrally  organ- 
ized and  is  supervised  by  a  trained  officer,  generally  desig- 
nated as  the  director  or  superintendent  of  farmers'  institutes. 
The  state  organization  is  usually  subdivided  into  county  insti- 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES 


95 


tutes  which  correspond  to  the  Pomona  Grange,  though  in  some 
states,  as  in  Illinois,  an  intervening  unit  based  on  the  state 
congressional  districts  is  employed.  Village  institutes  and 
district  farmers'  clubs  represent  the  local  unit  of  the  system, 
and  are  therefore  analogous  to  the  subordinate  grange.  State 
institute  meetings  or  "round-up"  institutes  are  held  annually 


Interurban  Exhibit  Cars  from  the  Illinois  College  of  Agriculture 

in  most  states.  County  institutes  also  convene  usually  but 
once  a  year.  Meetings  of  the  local  organizations  are  held 
at  least  yearly  and  often  quarterly,  or  even  more  frequently. 
A  special  feature  of  unusual  interest  in  farmers'  institute 
administration  is  the  American  Association  of  Farmers'  Insti- 
tute Workers.  This  body,  as  the  name  suggests,  is  an  asso- 
ciation of  institute  lecturers,  instructors,  and  officers,  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose  of  exchanging  ideas  and  advancing  the 
general  welfare  of  institute  work.    It  meets  annually  and  its 


96    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

proceedings   are   published   in   the   form  of   bulletins  by   the 
United  States  Department  of'Agriculture. 

Present  Status  and  Progress.  Farmers'  institutes  now 
exist  in  practically  every  state  and  territory  of  the  United 
States  and  throughout  Canada.  The  annual  attendance  at 
farmers'  institutes  in  the  L^nited  States  now  numbers  over 
two  millions,  and  nearly  a  half  million  dollars  is  appropriated 
yearly  by  the  several  states  for  conducting  the  work.  In  1910 
over  five  thousand  regular  institute  meetings  were  held 
throughout  the  country.  The  following  table  prepared  by 
Farmers'  Institute  Specialist  John  Hamilton,  from  the  sta- 
tistical reports  for  1910,  gives  an  idea  of  the  present  signifi- 
cance of  the  organization   in  some  of  the  leading  institute 

states : 

Institutes 

State  Held  Sessions  Cost        Attendance 

Illinois     163  792  $44,468.23  231,732 

Indiana     354  1218  20,785.00  203.910 

Iowa 83  564  14.764-25  117,550 

Kansas    247  782  25,366.66  10,044 

Michigan    403  1 136  9,760.00  149,602 

New    York    309  1 170  27,500.00  149,450 

Ohio     324  1620  21,250.00  421,040 

Pennsylvania     202  1061  20,000.00  161,696 

While  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  treatment  to  attempt  a 
detailed  study  of  all  that  the  farmers'  institute  is  doing,  slight 
mention  of  some  of  its  chief  characteristic  features  and  inno- 
vations in  the  different  states  will  give  a  more  appreciative 
understanding  of  the  organization  as  an  agency  of  progress 
in  the  betterment  of  farm  life. 

Normal  institutes.  Among  the  most  effective  of  these  fea- 
tures are  the  "normal  institutes,"  which  are  now  convened 
in  many  states  at  the  beginning  of  the  institute  season  for 
the  benefit  of  state  instructors  and  lecturers.  These  meetings 
are  held  under  the  auspices  of  state  agricultural  colleges  and 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES  97 

experiment  stations  and  frequently  continue  for  several  weeks. 
They  were  first  inaugurated  in  New  York  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity in  1899.  Several  state  agricultural  colleges,  particularly 
the  Massachusetts  College  of  Agriculture  at  Amherst,  and 
Cornell  College  of  Agriculture  at  Ithaca,  New  York,  have 
gone  farther  and  now  offer  special  training  courses  for 
farmers'  institute  instructors. 

Institutes  for  women.  Separate  institutes  for  women  and 
special  provisions  for  the  development  of  household  science 
are  now  a  characteristic  feature  of  institute  organization  in 
the  more  progressive  states.  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin  early 
initiated  separate  meetings  for  women,  and  Michigan  a  little 
later  developed  the  "women's  section."  Wholly  separate  insti- 
tutes for  women  are  now  held  in  Indiana  and  in  Ontario. 
Illinois  leads  all  other  states  at  present,  however,  in  the 
development  of  women's  interests  through  the  farmers'  insti- 
tute. Here  the  question  of  holding  separate  institutes  for 
women  has  never  been  presented.  The  Illinois  Association 
of  Household  Science,  which  represents  the  home  interests 
of  the  state,  is  closely  affiliated  with  the  farmers'  institute  and 
has  placed  local  organizations  in  every  county. 

Institute  work  for  young  people.  Every  movement  that 
expects  to  gain  a  firm  foothold  among  any  people  must  look 
to  the  education  of  the  children.  This  truth  has  lately  been 
recognized  by  both  the  Grange  and  the  farmers'  institute,  and 
boys'  and  girls'  institutes  have  been  planned  in  several  states. 
In  New  York  one  period  at  every  session  of  each  institute, 
known  as  the  ''children's  hour,"  is  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  young  people.  In  corn-growing  states,  corn-judging  con- 
tests have  been  introduced,  which  are  being  made  educative 
rather  than  competitive  affairs.  Nebraska  seems  to  lead  in 
the  organization  of  institutes  for  farm  children.  Here  the 
work  has  been  established  in  over  thirty  counties  and  a  state 
appropriation   is   allowed   for  its   support.      The   girls   work 


98 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


with  bread  and  sewing,  the  boys  with  corn,  and  about  ten 
thousand  young  people  have  been  enlisted  in  the  movement. 
Several  counties  in  Illinois,  particularly  Sangamon,  Piatt,  and 
Winnebago  counties,  have  such  clubs  for  school  children. 

Another  interesting  effort  for  reaching  young  people  through 
farmers'  institutes  is  the  "Grout  Farm  Encampment."  This 
unique  and  practical  idea  is  the  work  of  Mr.  A.  P.  Grout,  of 
Winchester,  Illinois.  The  encampment  is  held  annually 
on  Mr.  Grout's  farm  for  all  the  boys  of  Scott  county  who  can 


Household  Science  Department  at  the  National  Corn  Exposition, 

Columbus,  Ohio,  191 1 

attend.  Lodging  is  provided  in  large  tents  and  meals  and 
instruction  are  furnished  free.  The  outing  continues  for  a 
week  and  is  attended  every  year  by  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
boys,  who  gladly  embrace  its  opportunity  for  education  and 
recreation. 

Demonstration  zvork  and  exhibit  trains.  Demonstration 
work  has  been  a  familiar  idea  among  farmers'  institute  in- 
structors for  many  years,  but  it  is  recently  being  enlarged  to 
include  several  new  lines  of  work.  Illustrative  material  in 
the  shape  of  living  animals,  specimens,  charts,  and  lantern 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES 


99 


slides,  and  excursions  to  farms,  factories,  and  particu- 
lar sites  are  now  quite  common.  Field  demonstrations  in 
which  the  instructor  conducts  classes  out  of  doors  are  famil- 
iar also.  In  Michigan,  Kansas,  Virginia,  Washington,  and 
elsewhere  special  institute  trains  have  been  employed  for  pur- 
poses of  demonstration.  These  cars  are  fitted  up  with  ex- 
hibits of  fruit,  cereals,  and  grain,  and  run  through  the 
different  sections  of  the  state.  Large  audiences  attend  the 
lectures  of  the  specialists  who  accompany  them. 


The  Grout  Encampment  for  Farm  Boys 


Movable  schools.  Thus  far  farmers'  institutes  have  not 
attempted  to  give  regular  systematic  instruction.  ''Right 
here,"  says  Institute  Specialist  John  Hamilton,  "is  where  the 
present  system  seems  to  fail."  To  meet  this  deficiency  a  new 
device,  the  movable  school  of  agriculture,  has  been  intro- 
duced. These  schools  are  common  throughout  Europe  and 
differ  but  little  from  the  familiar  "short  courses"  frequently 
offered  in  this  country.    The  method  of  their  management  is 


lOO   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

very  simple.  The  state  director  or  superintendent  arranges  in 
advance  at  the  different  institute  centers  for  the  formation 
of  classes  numbering  from  ten  to  fifteen  persons  who  have  a 
common  interest  in  a  certain  topic,  and  agree  to  attend  faith- 
fully upon  a  course  of  lectures  and  to  participate  in  such 
practical  work  as  the  course  prescribes.  Trained  specialists 
then  visit  these  classes  and  offer  instruction  after  the  man- 
ner of  a  regular  school  for  one,  two,  or  three  weeks.  Thus 
the  instructors,  rather  than  the  schools,  are  the  movable  fea- 
ture. In  Iowa,  work  of  this  character  has  been  conducted 
for  some  time  through  the  initiative  of  the  State  Agricultural 
College  at  Ames.  Pennsylvania  also  has  attempted  the  mov- 
able school  idea  with  marked  success. 

Summer  institutes  and  agricultural  chautauquas.  Although 
winter  is  the  season  most  commonly  employed  for  the  con- 
vention of  farmers'  institutes  and  other  farm  gatherings,  sum- 
mer work  has  been  found  profitable  and  convenient  in  sev- 
eral states.  In  Indiana  eight  summer  institutes  were  recently 
held  for  farmers'  wives  and  children.  Illinois  has  lately 
adopted  the  practice  of  holding  an  annual  "Midsummer  Farm- 
ers' Institute"  at  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  to  show 
the  crop  experiments  in  operation  at  this  season.  Minnesota, 
in  1906,  conducted  a  farmers'  summer  school  one  week  in 
duration,  at  which  the  attendance  was  over  four  hundred 
and  where  from  ten  to  twelve  hours'  instruction  was  offered 
each  day.  Kansas  accomplished  the  same  end  through  an 
agricultural  chautauqua  held  in  1907,  which  continued  through 
ten  sessions  with  an  attendance  of  over  two  thousand.  Sev- 
eral states,  among  others  New  York  and  Ohio,  have  success- 
fully inaugurated  farmers'  institute  traveling  libraries  as 
another  means  of  promoting  farm  interests  and  extending 
agricultural  education. 

The  Agricultural  Press  as  a  Rural  Socializing  Agency. 
But  the  farmers'  institute  with  its  many  papers,  discussions. 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES  lOi 

and  bulletins  would  lose  more  than  half  its  effect  if  it  were 
not  for  the  agricultural  press,  and  in  any  treatment  of  the 
forces  now  at  work  in  the  socialization  of  farm  life,  due  con- 
sideration must  be  taken  of  this  most  important  agency. 

Rural  life  literature  is  of  two  kinds,  the  purely  agricultural, 
or  that  relating  to  soils,  crops,  stock,  and  the  science  of 
farming,  and  the  social,  or  that  relating  to  rural  institutions, 
and  to  the  farmer's  community  relationships.  Most  rural 
literature  is  purely  agricultural.  It  is  only  very  recently 
that  the  social  and  institutional  side  of  farm  life  has  begun 
to  receive  attention.  Bulletins,  especially  those  issued  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  are  for  the  most 
part  technically  agricultural.  These  bulletins  meet  a  most 
urgent  need,  but  there  is  also  a  field  for  social  farm  litera- 
ture that  might  well  be  cultivated.  Literature  of  this  charac- 
ter, designed  to  make  farmers  see  some  of  their  larger  social 
relationships  as  individuals  in  the  community  life,  would  di- 
rect attention  into  most  productive  channels.  The  additional 
gratuitous  distribution  of  such  bulletins  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  would  be  probably  the  most  direct 
method  at  present  of  impressing  upon  farmers  the  latent 
possibilities  of  the  home,  church,  school,  and  farm  organiza- 
tion, in  the  social  regeneration  of  country  life. 

Newspapers  deserve  special  mention  in  any  consideration 
of  the  agricultural  press,  because  of  their  influence  and  gen- 
eral circulation.  Not  every  farmer  reads  bulletins,  books,  or 
even  farm  journals,  but  scarcely  a  farm  home  can  be  found 
anywhere  which  is  not  visited  at  least  once  a  week  by  the 
local  newspaper.  This  makes  the  daily  and  weekly  news 
sheet  a  most  convenient  instrument  for  the  distribution  of 
ideas  of  rural  progress,  and  places  the  editors  of  even  small 
country  papers  in  the  position  of  leaders. 

The  tardiness  of  agricultural  journals  in  responding  to 
the  social  evolution  of  country  life  is  somewhat  surprising. 


I02   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Careful  observation  and  a  somewhat  extended  investigation 
have  revealed  practically  no  agricultural  journals  devoting 
adequate  space  to  the  school,  church,  farmers'  organization, 
and  other  social  phases  of  farm  living.  Agricultural  editors, 
for  the  most  part,  do  not  as  yet  seem  to  appreciate  the  full 
significance  and  need  of  current  literature  of  this  type.  In 
this  connection  it  is  a  pleasure  to  cite  the  splendid  leadership 
of  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Bill,  agricultural  editor  of  the  Illinois  Farm- 
ers' Institute  for  many  years,  whose  ideal  of  rural  journalism 
as  a  formative  force  in  agriculture,  embracing  all  interests  of 
the  country  community,  is  at  present  attaining  realization 
through  the  Farmers'  Voice,  of  Bloomington,  Illinois. 

The  chief  need  of  the  rural  press  at  the  present  writing 
is  for  a  thoroughly  reliable,  first  class  magazine,  devoted  to 
the  progress  and  development  of  the  social  side  of  country 
life.  Such  a  periodical  would  be  of  immeasurable  service 
to  those  now  engaged  in  the  upbuilding  of  various  rural  insti- 
tutions and  would  tend  to  correlate  effort  and  preserve  a 
balance  in  the  work  being  done.  A  magazine  of  this  type,  to 
fulfill  its  mission  in  the  best  way,  should  represent  both  gen- 
eral and  local  work  and  should  stand  consistently  for  the 
complete,  fully  rounded  development  of  the  country  community 
in  all  its  aspects.  The  phrase  ''Country  Community  Building" 
might  well  serve  as  a  name  for  such  a  prospective  publication. 
This,  at  least,  should  be  its  ideal. 

Farmers'  Institutes  and  the  Country  School.  It  is  the 
special  purpose  of  these  pages  to  impress  the  cooperation  of 
the  country  school  with  all  rural  forces  in  a  federation  for 
progress.  Such  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  school  and 
the  farmers'  institute  is  especially  desirable.  The  first  stages 
of  this  working  harmony  must  come  through  the  personal 
influence  of  the  teacher.  Unless  she  assumes  the  right  atti- 
tude toward  other  institutions  and  agencies,  the  children  under 
her  charge  are  not  likely  to  appreciate  them.    When  the  county 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES  IO3 

or  local  institute  meeting  is  advertised,  the  teacher  should 
discuss  the  program  with  the  children  of  the  school,  urge  the 
older  ones  to  attend  and  to  influence  their  parents  to  attend 
where  this  is  necessary,  and  in  every  way  encourage  co- 
operative eflfort  between  the  two  institutions.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  not  one  farmer  in  twenty-five  yet  attends  institutes, 
the  desirability  of  this  training  for  the  young  is  apparent. 

The  output  of  the  farmers'  institute  press  may  be  made  a 
second  means  through  which  much  quiet  work  can  be  done 
toward  this  end.  Newspaper  reports,  magazine  articles,  and 
especially  the  bulletins  and  annual  state  institute  reports  are 
useful  for  this  purpose.  These  state  reports  contain  so  many 
valuable  agricultural  articles  that  they  should  be  found  on 
the  shelves  of  every  country  school.  They  may  be  obtained 
without  cost  by  addressing  the  director  or  superintendent  of 
the  state  farmers'  institute.  Useful  bulletins  are  obtainable 
in  the  same  way. 

A  third  most  effective  means  of  gaining  this  desired  co- 
operation is  afforded  through  joint  farmers'  and  teachers' 
institutes.  In  some  states  the  custom  of  dismissing  the  coun- 
try schools  and  of  allowing  teachers  and  older  pupils  to  at- 
tend the  annual  county  farmers'  institute  is  generally  prac- 
ticed. Such  a  policy  is  productive  of  the  most  gratifying 
results  and  is  one  of  the  most  effective  methods  yet  derived 
for  bringing  about  educational  reforms. 

In  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  New  York,  farmers'  institute  travel- 
ing libraries  afford  an  excellent  opportunity  for  cooperation 
between  the  school  and  the  institute.  These  libraries  are 
shipped  in  strong  boxes  and  loaned  to  any  country  school  in 
the  state  requesting  them  for  a  period  of  several  weeks.  Kan- 
sas, Delaware,  and  Illinois  have  found  schoolhouse  meetings 
in  local  country  districts  of  great  value  in  furthering  the  inter- 
ests of  both  the  school  and  the  institute.  These  meetings  are  of 
various  types  but  always  deal  largely  with  agricultural  topics 


104   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

and  are  thus  a  potent  influence  for  the  introduction  of  agricul- 
ture into  the  common  schools.  T^Ien,  women,  and  children 
all  turn  out  to  these  gatherings  and  find  points  of  common 
interest. 

Another  interesting  development  in  farmers'  institute  and 
school  cooperation  occurred  in  DeKalb  County,  Dlinois,  in  the 
winter  of  1907,  when  the  Northern  Illinois  State  Normal 
School,  through  the  suggestion  of  the  late  Superintendent 
Frank  Hall,  opened  its  doors  to  the  local  county  institute  and 


Boys'  Corn  Class,  Farmers'  Institute,  Mercer  County,  Illinois 

supplied  several  of  the  institute  instructors.  This  undertaking  is 
now  a  well  established  practice  in  Illinois.  Since  normal  schools 
are  the  training  schools  for  future  teachers,  and  since  teachers 
can  control  the  attitude  of  coming  farmers  more  effectively 
than  any  others,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  much  truth  in 
Superintendent  Hall's  statement  that  "no  movement  of  greater 
significance  ever  appeared  on  the  institute  horizon."  If  indica- 
tive of  the  great  federation  of  rural  social  forces,  as  it  seems 
to  be,  this  movement  is  probably  all  that  is  implied  by  this 
statement. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  well  to  emphasize  the  responsibility  of 
the  farmers'  institute  in  bringing  about  a  general  cooperation 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES 


105 


of  social  forces  for  better  country  living.  The  farmers'  insti- 
tute has  not  accomplished  its  full  purpose  when  it  has  shown 
how  to  raise  better  corn  and  prevent  the  impoverishment  of 
soils.  These  are  worthy  ends,  but  they  are  not  sufficient. 
They  represent  but  one  phase  of  its  mission.  The  institute,  as 
all  other  farm  organizations,  must  go  further  than  this.  It 
must  show  how  to  rear  better  fanners,  men  and  women  more 
intelligently  prepared  to  control  all  the  affairs  of  life — social, 
political,  industrial,  and  educational.  Certainly  no  agency  in 
American  farm  life  today  has  a  more  favorable  opportunity 
for  rendering  such  service  than  the  farmers'  institute.  Per- 
haps, too,  with  the  exception  of  the  country  school,  none  is 
doing  more  for  the  best  development  of  farmers.  The  par- 
ticular point  to  be  emphasized  here,  however,  is  that  the 
farmers'  institute  must  concern  itself  with  not  only  the  finan- 
cial and  industrial  welfare  of  the  farmer,  as  it  has  evinced 
a  strong  tendency  to  do  in  the  past,  but  with  his  social  wel- 
fare also. 

To  obtain  immediate  results  it  is  necessary  that  this  respon- 
sibility of  the  farmers'  institute  be  shared  by  the  country 
school  and  the  country  teacher.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
teacher  should  assume  the  duties  of  an  institute  official.  It 
means  only  that  she  should  use  her  own  particular  opportuni- 
ties for  awakening  dormant  communities  to  a  greater  appre- 
ciation of  what  the  farmers'  institute  stands  for  as  a  social- 
izing agency  in  American  farm  life.  Some  means  of  bringing 
this  about  have  been  suggested,  but  it  must  be  understood 
that  these  are  only  suggestive.  The  earnest  teacher  who 
desires  to  do  anything  effective  in  furthering  institute  and 
school  cooperation  and  the  general  local  federation  of  rural 
social  forces,  must  gain  a  broad  general  conception  of  each 
of  these  agencies  through  reading  and  through  personal  con- 
tact and  communication  with  people  interested  in  their 
development. 


I06   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

The  bulletins  issued  by  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  under  the  direction  of  Farmers'  Institute  Special- 
ist John  Hamilton  are  invaluable  to  country  teachers  and  may 
be  obtained  for  the  asking.  Among  these  bulletins  are  the 
annual  proceedings  of  the  Association  of  Farmers'  Institute 
Workers,  a  history  of  the  development  of  the  institute  move- 
ment in  the  different  states,  and  a  series  of  illustrated  lec- 
tures. These  lectures  cover  a  variety  of  subjects  and  are 
especially  useful  for  evening  meetings  in  schoolhouses.  A 
list  of  their  titles  is  appended  to  this  chapter.  Each  one  is 
accompanied  by  three  or  four  dozen  lantern  slides.  The 
proceedings  of  the  Association  of  Farmers'  Institute  Workers 
contain  a  list  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  institute  officials 
in  the  several  states,  and  any  country  teacher  can  thus  get 
the  address  of  her  state  director  from  whom  state  reports 
and  other  literature  may  then  be  obtained.  In  this  simple  way 
country  teachers  can  easily  establish  connections  with  the  most 
progressive  and  thoughtful  institute  workers  in  the  country. 
Farmers'   Institute   Illustrated  Lectures 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  i.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture 
on  the  Care  of  Milk.     By  R.  A.  Pearson.     Pp.  12.     1904. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  2,  revised.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated 
Lecture  on  Potato  Diseases  and  Their  Treatment.  By  F.  C.  Stewart 
and  H.  J.  Eustace.    Pp.  30.     1907. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  3,  revised.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated 
Lecture  on  Acid  Soils.    By  H.  J.  Wheeler.     Pp.  28.     1907. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  4.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on 
Profitable  Cattle  Feeding.     By  F.  B.  Mumford.     Pp.  21.     1905. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  5.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on 
Silage  and  Silo  Construction  for  the  South.  By  Andrew  M.  Soule. 
Pp.  31.     1905. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  6.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on 
Essentials  of  Successful  Field  Experimentation.  By  C.  E.  Thorne.  Pp. 
24.     1905. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  7.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture 
on  Roads  and  Road  Building.  By  the  Office  of  Public  Roads.  Pp.  16. 
1907. 


FARMERS'  INSTITUTES  IO7 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  8.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on 
Farm  Architecture.    By  E.  T.  Wilson.     Pp.  20.     1907. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  9.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture 
on  Tobacco  Growing.    By  J.  N.  Harper,     Pp.  15. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  10.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on 
the  Production  and  Marketing  of  Eggs  and  Fowls.  By  James  Dryden. 
Pp.  20. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  11.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture  on 
Wheat  Culture.     By.  J.  I.  Schulte.     Pp.  22. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM 

Roads  an  Agency  for  Country  Life  Progress.  We  are 
just  now  mounting  the  crest  of  a  great  movement  back  to  the 
country.  In  all  this  stir  of  activity  nothing  has  more  bearing 
upon  the  real  Country  Life  Movement  than  the  kind  of  roads 
one  travels.  All  rural  advancement  depends  upon  highways. 
What  merits  it  to  build  an  attractive  home  at  the  end  of  an 
impassable  barrier  of  gummy  loam?  Or  of  w^hat  avail  is  it 
to  strive  for  a  prosperous  church,  a  centralized  school,  or  an 
enthusiastic  grange,  when  an  able-bodied  team  can  scarcely 
pull  an  empty  vehicle  down  the  main  thoroughfare? 

Roads  throughout  all  time  have  been  the  symbol  of  growth 
and  expansion.  They  are  truly  said  to  limit  the  progress  of  a 
people  and  determine  their  thought.  In  the  open  country  espe- 
cially they  become  the  arteries  of  life.  The  very  absorption 
with  which  the  road  is  scanned  from  every  farm  window 
proves  its  significance  in  the  life  of  the  country.  The  road  prob- 
lem, in  truth,  lies  next  the  heart  of  the  whole  rural  situa- 
tion, and  is  underlaid  only  by  the  more  fundamental  issue  of 
proper  education.  "The  two  great  forces  for  the  advance- 
ment of  civilization,"  once  said  Charles  Sumner,  "are  the 
schoolmaster  and  good  roads." 

The  Road  Problem  a  National  Issue.  The  road  question 
has  heretofore  been  regarded  as  a  farm  question  only,  and 
it  is  little  wonder,  considering  the  magnitude  of  the  problem, 
that  farmers  have  grown  weary  of  the  task  imposed  upon 
them.     So  marked  has  been  the  recent  change  of  opinion  in 

108 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM 


109 


this  regard,  however,  that  it  no  longer  requires  much  argu- 
ment to  declare  the  improvement  of  public  roads  a  problem 
of  state  and  national  concern.  The  high  cost  of  living  just 
now  so  disturbing  to  the  national  peace  finds  much  of  its 
origin  in  bad  road  conditions.  The  annual  "mud-tax"  in  the 
United  States — that  is,  the  financial  loss  due  to  transporting 


-  ^c*.->'»-  rift .  L ■«■    - T  i^-  V 


t:-»l^:-v,*t., ;. 


n 


fJji^Stt 


The  Road  Problem 


crops  over  bad  roads — is  estimated  at  $250,000,000.  Accord- 
ing to  Director  L.  W.  Page,  of  the  United  States  Office  of 
Public  Roads,  it  costs  a  farmer  1.6  cents  more  to  haul  a 
bushel  of  wheat  9.4  miles  to  a  neighboring  railroad  station 
than  it  does  to  transport  it  from  New  York  to  Liverpool,  a 
distance  of  3,100  miles.  Add  to  this,  much  of  the  railroad 
congestion   as   due   to    stoppage   of   traffic   at    farm   sources, 


no   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

and  the  road  question  cannot  escape  a  fair  share  of  responsi- 
bihty  for  the  high-cost-of-Hving  dilemma. 

But  notwithstanding  this  direct  influence  of  road  conditions 
upon  city  dwellers,  the  chief  effect  of  transportation  facilities 
is  felt  most  immediately  by  farmers.  It  is  farmers  who  must 
face  the  road  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  endure  its  trying  incon- 
veniences, and  dwell  with  it  from  one  year's  end  to  another. 
Every  phase  of  farm  living  is  colored  by  the  condition  of  the 
highways.  Not  only  the  economic,  but  the  social,  educational, 
and  even  the  spiritual  and  moral  status  of  rural  life  is  largely 
dependent  upon  roads.  And  herein  lies  the  greatest  proof  of 
the  contention  that  road  improvement  is,  and  will  always  be,  a 
matter  of  national  concern.  No  class  whether  in  city  or 
country  can  live  to  itself  alone,  any  more  than  the  individual ; 
the  standard  of  life  in  the  most  isolated  district  eventually 
permeates  the  whole  nation,  raising  or  lowering  its  level 
according  to  the  original  quality.  In  other  words,  we  are 
now  so  interwoven  as  a  population  that  no  entirely  separate 
country  and  city  problems  exist.  What  we  have  understood 
heretofore  as  class  issues  were  but  rural  and  urban  phases 
of  common  national  problems.  This  is  especially  true  of  the 
road  problem. 

But  while  the  national  and  universal  significance  of  road 
improvement  is  now  commonly  acknowledged,  it  is  not  yet 
acted  upon  in  a  legislative  and  administrative  way,  as  will 
appear  throughout  this  discussion. 

The  Road  System  of  France  as  a  Type  of  Efficient  High- 
way Organization.  Before  attempting  to  point  out  the 
defects  of  our  present  American  road  system,  it  will  be  well 
to  outline  a  good  and  thoroughly  established  system  as  an 
example  of  what  a  road  system  should  embody.  For  this 
purpose  almost  any  European  road  system  would  answer, 
but  that  of  France  is  selected.  The  roads  of  France  are 
the  best  in  the  world.     This  enviable  rank  is  made  possible 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        m 

only  through  a  marked  degree  of  attention — financial,  scien- 
tific, and  administrative.  France  maintains  350,000  miles  of 
stone  road,  enough  highway  to  encircle  the  whole  world  four- 
teen times,  in  a  state  of  almost  perfect  repair.  The  original 
cost  of  these  roads  has  been  estimated  at  $1,660,000,000,  while 
the  annual  cost  of  maintenance  is  $40,600,000.  In  this  last 
sum,  so  startlingl}  large  to  Americans,  lies  much  of  the  secret 
of  French  highway  efficiency.  The  whole  concern  in  road 
maintenance  is  the  care  of  the  crust.  In  this,  three  things 
are  necessary:  perfect  drainage,  constant  cleaning,  and  imme- 
diate and  proper  repair.  Stone  roads  must  be  kept  clean 
because  dust  makes  mud,  mud  holds  moisture,  and  moisture 
breaks  the  crust.  To  this  end  the  chief  highways  of  France 
are  swept  almost  daily,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
"French  roads  are  maintained  by  the  broom."  So  perfect 
is  this  system  of  repair  that  the  average  thickness  of  French 
national  roads  is  but  five  and  one-eighth  inches  as  contrasted 
with  the  former  ^American  idea  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen 
inches. 

It  is  to  a  remarkable  system  of  road  administration  and 
supervision,  however,  that  we  must  finally  turn  for  the  under- 
lying cause  of  the  perfection  of  French  roads.  The  follow- 
ing account  of  the  organization  of  the  French  road  system 
is  quoted  from  Director  L.  W.  Page,  of  the  United  States 
Office  of  Public  Roads : 

The  striking  feature  of  the  French  road  system  is  the  skilled  super- 
vision provided  in  every  grade  of  road  work  and  in  every  unit  of 
the  administrative  organization.  The  basis  of  the  system  is  the 
School  of  Roads  and  Bridges,  one  of  the  finest  technical  schools  in 
the  world,  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  national  government. 
From  the  graduates  of  this  school  are  chosen  the  highway  engineers 
who  are  entrusted  with  the  building  and  maintenance  of  the  roads. 
The  course  of  study  lasts  three  years  and  the  instruction  is  free. 

At  the  head  of  the  administrative  organization  is  an  Inspector- 
General  of  bridges  and  highways,  under  whom  are  Chief  Engineers  in 


112   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

charge  of  the  road  work  of  single  departments  and  communes.  Single 
arrondissements  are  under  the  direction  of  ordinary  engineers  and 
under-engineers,  the  latter  being  equivalent  in  rank  to  non-com- 
missioned officers  in  the  army.  The  sub-divisions  are  under  the 
direction  of  principal  conductors  and  ordinary  conductors.  Next  in 
line  come  the  foremen  of  construction  gangs,  the  clerk  employed  at 
headquarters,  and  finally  the  cantonniers  or  patrolmen,  each  having 
from  four  to  seven  kilometers  of  highway  under  his  immediate  super- 


A  French  Highway 

France  maintains  enough  highway  to  encircle  the  world  fourteen  times 
in  a  state  of  almost  perfect  repair 

vision.  This  great  administrative  machine,  working  in  complete  har- 
mony with  definite  lines  of  responsibility  clearly  established,  accom- 
plishes results  with  military  precision  and  regularity. 

In  this  army  of  workers  not  the  least  important  unit  is  the  cantonnier, 
or  patrolman,  who  has  charge  of  a  single  section  of  the  road.  He  keeps 
the  ditches  open,  carefully  fills  holes  and  ruts  with  broken  stone, 
removes  dust  and  deposits  of  sand  and  earth  after  heavy  rains,  trims 
the  trees  and  bushes,  and  when  ordinary  work  is  impossible  breaks 
stone  and  transports  it  to  points  where  it  is  likely  to  be  needed.     He 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        113 

brings  all  matters  requiring  attention  to  the  notice  of  his  chief. 
Each  cantonnier  carries  a  Httle  book  in  which  the  chief  cantonnier 
notes  his  instructions  and  checks  up  the  work  accomplished.  The  con- 
ductors go  over  the  line  at  regular  intervals  and  direct  the  chief  can- 
tonnier, and  all  reports  are  transmitted  to  the  central  authorities,  so 
that  at  any  time  the  exact  condition  of  every  foot  of  road  throughout 
France  may  be  ascertained.  Every  year  the  conductors  prepare  esti- 
mates of  necessary  expenses  for  the  next  year,  under  three  heads, 
namely,  maintenance,  heavy  repairs,  and  new  work,  and  the  parlia- 
mentary appropriations  are  based  upon  these  careful  calculations. 

Organization  of  the  American  Highway  System.  The 
American  road  system  since  1893  has  been  centered  in  a 
special  national  bureau  under  the  direction  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  This  bureau  when  first  organized  was 
known  as  the  Ofhce  of  Road  Inquiry  and  was  given  an  appro- 
priation of  $10,000.  Since  this  time  minor  changes  have  been 
made,  appropriations  have  been  increased,  and  the  name  has 
been  changed  to  the  Ofhce  of  PubHc  Roads.  From  the  very 
first  this  bureau  has  proved  its  efficiency,  and  to  this  division 
of  our  highway  system,  at  least,  Americans  can  point  with 
pride  and  satisfaction.  The  work  of  this  office,  which  is 
wholly  of  an  investigative  and  educational  character,  is  given 
over  to  three  subdivisions  of  the  department.  These  are, 
first,  the  Division  of  Tests,  or  laboratory,  in  which  road- 
building  materials  from  any  locality  are  tested  free ;  second, 
the  Highway  Division,  which  performs  the  technical  engineer- 
ing work  of  the  office ;  and  third,  the  Division  of  Road  Alan- 
agement,  which  concerns  itself  with  statistical  work  and  the 
preparation  and  distribution  of  bulletins. 

Just  at  this  point,  however,  in  passing  on  to  the  state  unit, 
our  public  road  system  begins  to  break  down.  Road  adminis- 
tration has  been  placed  on  a  sound  and  practical  basis  in 
but  half  of  the  states  of  the  union.  Even  among  these  the 
variety  of  management  existing  indicates  the  lack  of  scientific 
certainty  in  determining  the  best  organization.     In  some  in- 


114   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

stances,  as  in  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  the  State  High- 
way Department  possesses  official  authority  and  ample  rev- 
enue to  enforce  its  bidding.  In  others,  as  in  Illinois,  the 
work  of  the  state  department  is  only  educational,  investi- 
gative, and  advisory.  In  a  full  half  of  the  states,  it  should 
be  remembered,  there  is  no  trace  of  centralized  or  state 
control  of  roads. 

But  if  state  highway  organization  reveals  variety  and  un- 
certainty, how  much  worse  do  matters  appear  when  atten- 
tion is  turned  to  the  local  units.  In  the  South,  this  unit  of 
organization  for  roads,  as  for  other  governmental  affairs,  is 
usually  the  county.  In  the  North,  it  is  the  township.  In  all, 
there  is  thus  presented  the  motley  confusion  of  states  with 
centralized  road  organization,  of  others  with  none;  of  some 
with  county  organization,  but  none  for  state  or  township ; 
of  others  with  state  and  township  control,  but  none  for 
the  county;  and  of  still  others  with  township,  but  neither 
state  nor  county  systems. 

Some  Defects  of  the  American  Highway  System.  The 
evils  of  this  heterogeneousness  of  the  present  highway  sys- 
tem are  most  evident  in  the  local  community.  Here  the  sins 
of  untrained  officials,  political  influence,  and  unscientific  con- 
struction are  plainly  revealed.  According  to  State  Highway 
Engineer  A.  N.  Johnson  nearly  seven  millions  of  dollars  are 
spent  annually  in  Illinois  by  men  who  know  nothing  of  road 
building.  As  an  illustration  of  this  unscientific  procedure 
let  the  reader  recall  how  many  times  he  has  known  roads  to 
be  worked  at  the  wrong  time  of  year  or  has  seen  local  officials 
attempting  to  mend  a  stone  road  by  shoveling  loose  material 
upon  its  surface,  thereby  accomplishing  the  very  thing  France 
annually  spends  millions  to  prevent.  Let  him  consider,  too, 
that  the  chief  underlying  evil  in  all  this  local  waste  in  road 
management,  as  in  much  other  inefficiency,  is  partisan  politics. 

Only   the  most   casual   comparison   of   our   so-called   road 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM 


115 


system  with  that  of  the  French  is  required  to  reveal  its  glaring 
defects.  The  most  evident  of  these  deficiencies  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

I.  Our  system  is  poorly  organized,  incomplete,  and  lacks 
unity.  This  has  been  indicated  by  the  brief  account  of  its 
organization  given  above. 

It   enforces  the   wrong  policy  of   support,   entailing  a 


2. 


Avenue  of  Trees.     Hobhema 

local  rather  than  a  state  and  national  system.  This  plan  is 
not  only  inefficient  but  rankly  unjust  and  deserves  the  con- 
demnation which  farmers  have  heaped  upon  it  in  their  demands 
for  state  and  federal  aid. 

3.  It  fails  to  provide  adequate  revenue  for  the- construc- 
tion and  maintenance  of  respectable  highways.  In  1910  the 
total   mileage  of   roads   in  the   United   States   was  2,151,500 


Il6   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

miles.  During  the  same  year  the  total  expenditures  for  road 
improvement  were  about  $90,000,000.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  only  thoroughly  dependable  and  efficient  type  of  road 
is  the  hard  surfaced  one,  which  costs  at  least  from  two  to 
three  thousand  dollars  a  mile,  it  is  plain  that  little  can  be 
done  with  an  annual  average  of  but  forty-five  dollars  to  the 

mile. 

4.  Through  political  contamination  it  permits  the  employ- 
ment of  untrained  officials.  These,  it  is  true,  are  restricted 
to  the  local  field,  but  this  is  exactly  where  they  can  do  the 
most  harm.     The  folly  of  this  is  self-evident. 

5.  It  allows  roads  to  be  poorly  built  with  little  or  no  ap- 
plication of  engineering  science,  wasting  annually  fabulous 
sums  in  this  way. 

6.  It  makes  practically  no  provision  for  the  maintenance 
of  completed  roads.  So  seemingly  disheartening  and  dis- 
couraging is  the  rapidity  with  which  hard-surfaced  roads 
go  to  pieces  under  this  lax  method  that  the  stupid  neglect 
to  which  newly  made  roads  are  subjected  has  been  declared 
by  some  "the  worst  enemy  of  the  good  roads  movement." 

7.  It  provides  no  accurate  survey  or  classification  of  roads. 
The  determination  of  local  conditions  and  the  collection  of 
data  constitute  the  foundation  of  every  scientific  undertak- 
ing, but  for  roads,  as  for  other  phases  of  agriculture,  scarcely 
a  beginning  has  been  made  in  this  direction. 

8.  The  system  as  a  whole  is  supported  by  insufficient 
legislation.  Herein  lies  the  source  of  its  other  defects.  But 
back  of  this  and  of  every  other  deficiency  named,  lies  the 
great  original  defect  of  insufficient  attention  on  the  part  of 
the  people  as  a  whole.  This,  in  the  last  analysis,  is  the  most 
serious  need  of  all,  and  for  its  correction  nothing  but  the 
stimulating  influence  of  education  wnll  avail.  Reference  will 
be  made  to  this  point  in  a  later  connection. 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        117 

Suggestions  for  an  Improved  Highway  System.  Plans 
for  an  improved  highway  system  are  numerous.  The  ideal 
American  system,  however,  should  not  be  patterned  closely 
after  the  systems  of  Europe.  This  is  now  considered  a 
serious  error  by  many  students  of  road  administration.  Our 
situation  with  vast  stretches  of  open  country  and  little  build- 
ing material  presents  exceedingly  difficult  and  individual  con- 
ditions for  which  a  distinctly  American  method  must  be 
devised.  But  the  one  respect  in  which  we  may  safely  imitate 
European  models  is  that  of  equal  efficiency. 

To  this  end  an  improved  system  would  call  for  the  fur- 
ther strengthening  and  development  of  the  present  Office 
of  Public  Roads,  so  that  its  already  efficient  service  might  be 
still  further  increased.  In  conjunction  with  this  office,  yet 
distinct  from  it,  the  establishment  of  a  National  Highway 
Commission  would  seem  wise.  This  commission  should  be 
an  advisory  council  designed  chiefly  to  arbitrate  in  road  mat- 
ters between  states,  and  to  secure  the  working  coordination 
of  the  state  highway  departments.  The  best  organization 
within  the  state  seems  to  be  that  of  vesting  the  general  con- 
trol of  road  affairs  in  the  hands  of  a  state  highway  commis- 
sion which  shall  be  either  an  appointive  or  elective  office, 
preferably  an  appointive  one.  The  responsible  head  of  actual 
road  construction  within  the  state,  however,  should  be  a 
thoroughly  trained  and  efficient  state  highway  engineer,  em- 
ployed by  the  state  highway  commission.  This  office  should 
be  zvholly  removed  from  political  favoritism.  In  each  county, 
working  under  the  supervision  and  direction  of  the  state  high- 
way engineer  should  be  a  county  engineer.  This  office,  also, 
should  be  wholly  removed  from  politics,  the  occupants  being 
employed  by  a  county  highway  commission  especially  elected 
for  this  purpose.  Under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  engi- 
neer should  be  a  group  of  supervisors  or  overseers,  varying 


Il8   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

in  number  with  the  amount  and  difficulty  of  the  highway 
work  in  the  county.  These  men  should  be  in  direct  authority 
over  the  gangs  of  workmen  but  should  be  assisted  by  fore- 
men whom  they  select.  This  plan  is  but  roughly  suggestive, 
but  it  is  apparent  that  when  some  such  continuity  of  pur- 
pose exists,  good  roads  will  come  as  a  natural  consequence, 
and  not  before. 

Some  Progressive  Road  Movements  and  Reforms :  Legis- 
lative Improvements.  Numerous  reforms  are  now  forth- 
coming designed  to  overcome  one  or  more  of  the  defects  just 
set  forth.  Chief  among  these  are  the  legislative  provisions  for 
the  improvement  of  the  system.  The  gradual  expansion  of  the 
national  Office  of  Public  Roads  through  increased  funds  and 
the  employment  of  more  officials  has  been  one  of  the  most 
effective  movements  for  progress.  Legislative  enactment  for 
the  improvement  of  state  supervision  has  also  been  especially 
marked  in  recent  road  history.  Twenty-five  states  now  possess 
official  highway  commissions,  whereas  less  than  twenty 
years  ago  no  states  availed  themselves  of  this  opportunity.  In 
county  and  local  organization,  reform  is  further  advancing, 
^lissouri,  long  famed  for  her  bad  roads,  but  now  redeeming 
this  reputation  through  the  bestowal  upon  humanity  of  D.  Ward 
King  and  his  famous  road  drag,  is  recently  proving,  the  effi- 
ciencv  of  a  well  directed  county  system.  The  control  of  county 
road  administration  in  ^Missouri  is  optionally  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  county  court,  which  acts  also  as  a  county  highway  com- 
mission and  is  authorized  to  employ  a  trained  engineer  to 
direct  the  highway  work  of  the  county.  This  engineer  di- 
vides the  county  into  road  districts,  determining  the  size, 
shape,  and  number  of  such  districts  upon  the  basis  of  economy 
and  convenience,  rather  than  by  township  or  other  political 
unit.  Each  district  is  then  placed  under  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  district  overseers,  who  direct  the  laborers  employed 
in  the  actual  work  of  construction  and  maintenance.     These 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        ng 

overseers  are  also  appointed,  not  politically  elected,  and  prop- 
erty road  tax  is  due  the  state  in  cash. 

State  Aid  and  Increased  Revenue.  Significant  reform  is 
coming  also  in  the  increase  of  funds  appropriated  for  road 
building,  and  in  the  manner  through  which  these  sums  are 
raised.  The  wasteful  plan  of  allowing  local  tax  to  be  worked 
out  upon  the  roads  is  rapidly  being  corrected.  Federal  aid, 
though  not  yet  forthcoming,  is  enthusiastically  sought  and 
seemingly  near  at  hand.  The  most  progressive  reform  in  a 
financial  way  has  been  the  increased  provision  for  state  aid. 
Thirty-two  states  now  furnish  more  or  less  financial  aid  to 
local  communities  desiring  to  build  roads.  In  other  states 
free  material  prepared  in  the  state  penal  institutions  is  fur- 
nished in  addition  or  in  lieu  of  financial  aid.  Among  the 
states  that  led  in  state  aid  in  19 lo  were  New  York,  appro- 
priating two  and  one-half  million  dollars ;  Alassachusetts,  one 
million,  and  Pennsylvania,  one  million.  In  ^Massachusetts  the 
state  pays  the  whole  expense  of  all  roads  built. 

Developments  in  Road  Science.  Nowhere  throughout  the 
entire  field  of  road  administration  has  greater  progress  been 
made  than  in  the  development  of  road  science.  Because  of 
the  overbalancing  percentage  of  earth  roads  in  this  country 
(ninety-five  per  cent)  great  effort  has  been  expended  upon 
this  phase  of  the  problem.  Location,  drainage,  and  dragging 
have  been  especially  emphasized  in  this  connection.  Road 
surfacing  is  another  line  of  endeavor  in  which  great  progress 
has  been  made.  Nothing  has  so  taxed  the  thought  of  modern 
highway  engineers  as  the  search  for  a  surfacing  that  will 
stand  the  ravages  of  automobiles.  In  this  connection  it  is 
interesting  to  note  the  paradoxical  influence  of  the  auto- 
mobile which  through  the  demand  of  motorists  for  better 
highways  builds  up  roads  even  while  tearing  them  down. 

No  phase  of  highway  progress  shows  a  greater  develop- 
ment of  applied  road  science  than  the  experimental  work  of 


I20   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

the  national  Office  of  Public  Roads  in  designing  various 
types  of  highway  construction  to  meet  local  conditions.  Aside 
from  the  dragged  earth  roads  the  following  types  have  been 
developed. 

The  sand-clay  road  is  adapted  to  any  region  affording 
both  sand  and  clay.  Of  all  the  miserable  surfaces  over  which 
a  team  can  struggle,  sand  is  probably  the  worst,  with  clay 
a    close   second.      But    fortunately   these   two    dreaded    soils 


An  Automobile  Ravaging  a  Road 


present  opposite  characteristics.  The  essence  of  economy  in 
handling  such  roads  therefore  is  to  mix  the  two  substances 
until  the  bad  qualities  of  one  have  neutralized  those  of  the 
other.  This  is  done  by  putting  sand  upon  a  clay  road  and 
clay  upon  a  sandy  one.  The  larger,  coarser,  and  more  angu- 
lar the  sand  grains,  the  more  firmly  they  wedge  and  cement 
together  and  the  more  successful  the  undertaking.  When 
well  dragged  and  properly  shaped  such  roads  become  sur- 
prisingly good  highways. 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        121 

In  large  areas  of  the  South,  especially  along  the  Mississippi 
river,  sedimentary  clays  are  very  common.  Upon  investiga- 
tion the  clinkering  point  of  many  of  these  clays  has  been 
found  sufficiently  low  to  suggest  that  the  simple  burning  of 
their  surface  by  open  wood  fires  would  serve  to  harden  them. 
To  accomplish  this  the  road  bed  is  first  plowed  deeply  and 
furrowed  into  large  transverse  furrows  connected  by  a  longi- 
tudinal one  acting  as  a  flue.  Wood  is  then  placed  in  the 
furrows,  partially  covered,  and  fired,  baking  the  lumps  of 
clay  among  it  as  it  burns.  When  cooled  sufficiently,  this 
hurnt-clay  road,  as  it  is  called,  is  immediately  rolled  and 
dragged  into  shape  with  a  decided  crown  to  turn  rainfall. 

In  other  regions  of  the  country  where  sand  abounds  but  no 
clay  is  to  be  found,  some  other  method  of  dampening  the 
sand  and  increasing  its  rigidity  must  be  devised  than  the 
application  of  clay.  To  meet  this  demand  oils  have  been 
applied  with  fair  success,  producing  what  is  known  as  the 
oiled  road.  Such  roads  are  most  common  in  sections  of  Cali- 
fornia where  the  presence  of  oil  wells  within  reasonable 
distance  makes  this  treatment  especially  practicable. 

In  the  Middle  West,  where,  owing  to  the  absence  of  good 
building  material  and  the  value  of  farm  lands,  the  road  prob- 
lem is  more  acute  than  in  any  other  section,  beds  of  gravel 
are  often  found  which  make  the  construction  of  gravel  roads 
possible.  In  the  building  of  gravel  roads  three  particular 
errors  are  common.  First,  the  gravel  is  merely  dumped  upon 
the  roadway  and  not  screened  and  applied  in  layers  after 
the  manner  of  macadam  as  it  should  be.  Second,  the  wrong 
kind  of  gravel  is  used.  Sharp,  angular  gravel  is  the  only 
kind  that  will  hold  its  place  well,  the  rounded  river  gravel, 
most  common  in  the  Middle  West,  being  altogether  too 
smooth  to  remain  in  position.  Third,  the  maintenance  and 
repair  of  the  road,  when  not  wholly  neglected,  is  ordinarily 
accomplished  by   throwing  loose   material  upon   the   surface 


122   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

without  any  attempt  at  making  it  cement.  These  ordinary 
practices,  famiHar  sights  along  almost  any  graveled  road, 
explain  its  early  decay. 

The  height  of  rural  highway  perfection  is  the  macadam 
road.  This  type  of  road  building,  gets  its  name  from  its 
originator,  MacAdam,  a  Scotch  road  scientist  who  about 
1812  designed  the  road  bearing  his  name.  The  initial  step 
in  the  building  of  a  macadam  road  is  the  preparation  of  the 
road  bed.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance  and  involves 
several  processes  within  itself.  The  first  of  these  is  grading. 
After  this  the  road  bed  is  rolled  with  a  steam  roller  to  make 
it  firm  and  smooth  and  to  produce  a  crown.  The  first  layer 
of  crushed  stone  is  then  applied  and  rolled.  This  layer  con- 
sists of  stone  about  two  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  The 
upper  course  or  layer  of  stone,  consisting  of  fragments  from 
one-half  to  one  and  one-quarter  inches  in  diameter,  is  then 
put  on.  After  this,  water  is  sprinkled  over  the  completed 
surface  to  aid  in  the  process  of  cementing,  and  the  heavy 
roller  is  worked  long  and  faithfully.  Macadam  roads  as  built 
in  the  United  States  are  generally  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet 
wide,  and  from  four  to  six  inches  thick,  though  recent  prac- 
tice is  to  make  the  stone  surface  as  thin  as  possible  yet 
with  sufficient  body  to  endure  the  traffic  imposed  upon  it. 
The  cost  of  macadam  road  varies  from  two  to  five  thousand 
dollars  per  mile,  depending  upon  the  availability  of  material. 
The  maintenance  and  care  of  macadam  roads  is  a  science  of 
itself.  The  three  cardinal  requisites  of  good  maintenance 
have  been  declared :  proper  sub-drainage,  prompt  and  efficient 
repair,  and  the  keeping  of  the  surface  free  from  mud  and 
dust.  All  of  these,  it  must  be  confessed,  are  often  dis- 
regarded under  the  American  system  of  road  administration. 

Increased  Road  Sentiment  and  Cooperation.  Probably 
the  most  encouraging  sign  of  the  times  pointing  toward  the 
advent  of  better  roads  is  the  increased  road  sentiment  and  co 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM 


123 


operation  now  seen  not  only  among  road  officials  and  farm- 
ers, but  throughout  the  whole  population.  But  notwithstand- 
ing the  great  number  of  organizations  for  road  improve- 
ment, all  that  has  thus  far  been  accomplished  is  but  a  begin- 
ning. Those  who  are  earnestly  conscious  of  the  national  need 
in  this  direction  will  still  find  plenty  to  do.  All  reform  is 
said  to  begin  at  home  and  this  is  especially  true  of  road  bet- 
terment. It  is  the  work  of  the  small  organization  in  the 
local  community  which  finally  proves  effective.  Among  the 
hundreds  of  local  road  organizations  throughout  the  country 
may  be  cited  the  Galva  Road  Improvement  Association,  of 
Henry  County,  Illinois.  This  organization  has  adopted  the 
cash  system  of  road  work,  instituted  a  road-dragging  cam- 
paign, and  united  the  entire  community,  both  town  and  coun- 
try, in  an  effective  movement  for  highway  improvement. 

Among  the  most  spectacular  road  feats  ever  performed  is 
the  recent  dragging  of  the  Iowa  River-to-River  Road,  extend- 
ing from  Davenport  to  Council  Bluffs,  a  distance  of  three 
hundred  eighty  miles.  This  interesting  thoroughfare,  pass- 
ing through  twelve  counties  and  connecting  scores  of  towns, 
is  the  result  of  a  newspaper  agitation  aroused  by  the  Des 
Moines  Capital.  The  significant  factor  in  the  making  of  this 
highway  was  the  cooperation  developed.  "It  has  taken  two 
months,"  says  a  reporter,  ''to  build  the  road,  but  it  took  four 
months  to  build  the  organization  that  built  the  road." 

While  the  desire  for  road  improvement  is  chiefly  measur- 
able in  local  terms,  there  is  a  proper  place  for  the  many  state 
and  national  organizations  now  covering  this  field.  Among 
these  should  be  mentioned  first  the  numerous  state  good  roads 
associations.  Voluntary  organizations  of  this  type  exist  in 
practically  all  the  states,  and  in  most  cases  are  carrying  on 
effective  campaigns.  In  some  instances  states  confronted  by 
similar  highway  difficulties  have  formed  sectional  road  asso- 
ciations as  the  Southern  Appalachian  Good  Roads  Associa- 


124   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

tion,  which  has  been  organized  for  the  definite  purpose  of 
providing  ways  and  means  for  the  construction  of  five  hun- 
dred miles  of  improved  roads  in  the  southern  Appalachian 
mountain  region. 

Of  the  national  road  leagues  now  in  force  the  first  to  form 
was  the  National  Good  Roads  Association,  organized  in  1900. 
The  chief  purpose  of  this  organization  is  to  educate  the 
public  to  the  necessity  of  good  roads.     To  this  end  it  holds 


Marking  the  Route  of  the  Iowa  River-to-River  Dragged  Road 
This  road  extends  across  the  state  of  Iowa,  a  distance  of  380  miles 

large  annual  conventions  and  works  chiefly  through  lectures 
and  the  press.  State  highway  departments  realizing  the  simi- 
larity of  their  problems  have  also  formed  a  special  organiza- 
tion known  as  the  American  Highway  League,  which  is  de- 
signed primarily  "to  encourage  highway  improvement  and 
provide  effective  cooperation  between  state  road  departments 
and  other  state  and  federal  departments  interested  in  roads." 
Among  the  latest  national  highway  organizations  is  the  Amer- 
ican Association  for  Highway  Improvement,  organized  in  the 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        125 

fall  of  1 9 10.  This  association  intends  to  serve  as  a  national 
head  for  all  road  organizations  and  has  undertaken  as  its 
Herculean  task  "the  correlation  and  harmonizing  of  the  ef- 
forts of  all  existing  organizations  working  for  road  improve- 
ment." It  serves  also  as  a  general  clearing  house  for  high- 
way information,  and  may  be  reached  through  the  address 
given  in  the  rural  progress  directory  of  this  book.  Surmount- 
ing all  local,  state,  and  national  effort  at  road  organization 
stands  the  Permanent  International  Association  of  Road  Con- 
gresses. This  association  holds  biennial  international  road 
congresses,  the  first  of  which  convened  in  Paris  in  1908,  and 
the  second  in  Brussels  in  1910. 

These  congresses  indicate  the  significance  w4th  which  the 
problem  of  road  improvement  is  viewed  by  the  nations  of  the 
world,  and  prove  sources  of  untold  worth  for  the  exchange  of 
national  engineering  discoveries  and  the  development  of  road 
science. 

Road  Beautifying.  When  people  become  truly  inter- 
ested in  a  project  they  evince  a  desire  to  adorn  it.  It  is 
therefore  encouraging  to  see  a  beginning  toward  road  beau- 
tifying. Certainly  nothing  adds  more  to  either  the  aesthetic 
or  material  value  of  land  than  an  attractive  highway.  In 
older  countries  this  has  long  been  appreciated,  and  the  charm 
of  English  lanes  and  European  drives  is  greatly  famed.  In 
our  new  land  the  fearful  toil  necessary  to  subjugate  the  con- 
tinent and  acquire  the  primal  comforts  of  life  largely  excuses 
the  neglect  with  which  this  phase  of  road  improvement  has 
been  treated.  It  does  not,  however,  in  any  degree,  excuse  the 
wanton  ruin  and  indifference  with  which  trees  are  still  muti- 
lated, weeds  disregarded,  and  rubbish  dumped  along  our 
public  thoroughfares. 

Tree  planting  and  the  mowing  of  weeds  should  be  the  first 
steps  for  the  beautifying  of  our  American  highways.  Trees 
are  often  supposed  to  injure  roads,  but  the  contrary  is  usually 


126   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

the  case.  Macadam  roads  especially  are  benefited  by  them, 
as  they  conserve  moisture  and  prevent  dust.  Even  earth  roads 
are  improved  by  trees,  provided  they  are  not  planted  too 
closely.  Planting  alternately,  on  opposite  sides,  placing  a 
tree  every  twenty-five  feet  along  the  roadway,  is  the  distance 
recommended  for  tree  setting  by  the  Office  of  Public  Roads. 

In  Germany,  fruit  trees 
are  planted  along  roads, 
and  a  large  highway  rev- 
enue comes  from  this 
source.  Aside  from  this 
adornment  enthusiasts  of 
this  phase  of  road  im- 
provement look  forward 
to  the  time  when  every 
important  road  shall  bear 
a  name,  farmhouses  along 
it  being  named  or  num- 
bered, and  all  confusing 
crossings  being  marked 
with  well-kept  guide 
signs.  Certainly  this  would  add  much  to  the  convenience  of 
farm  living  and  should  be  welcomed  by  those  who  expect  to 
spend  their  days  upon  the  land. 

Road  Education.  Of  all  movements  for  road  progress, 
however,  none  is  so  significant  as  road  education,  since  the 
road  question,  like  other  problems,  is  chiefly  a  matter  of 
public  enlightenment.  Much  is  being  done  in  this  direction, 
but  that  more  is  needed  is  clearly  apparent  from  the  present 
conditions  of  our  highways.  At  the  head  of  highway  propa- 
ganda stands  the  federal  Office  of  Public  Roads.  The  pri- 
mary purpose  of  this  bureau  is  educational  and  in  this  direc- 
tion no  division  of  our  national  Department  of  Agriculture 


A  Noble  Sentinel 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        127 

is  rendering  greater  service.^  This  office  not  only  serves 
the  general  purpose  of  a  national  clearing  house  for  highway 
information,  but  carries  on  scientific  research  and  experi- 
mentation, and  disseminates  the  vast  amount  of  information 
thus  gained  to  the  general  public  in  the  form  of  bulletins.  The 
fact  that  these  bulletins  cost  little  or  nothing  and  their  scien- 
tific reliability  and  ofttimes  attractive  literary  style,  make 
them  valuable  road  texts  for  popular  use.  As  a  second 
method  of  arousing  road  sentiment,  object-lesson  roads  are 
constructed  by  the  department.  Still  another  means  of  public 
education  employed  by  the  federal  road  department  is  a  printed 
lecture  upon  the  subject  of  roads  and  road  building  illustrated 
with  stereopticon  slides.-  This  lecture  may  be  obtained  free 
for  use  in  any  community  through  the  Office  of  Public  Roads 
at  A\'ashington,  or  of  Farmers'  Institute  Specialist  John 
Hamilton. 

Next  to  the  federal  office  the  most  effective  agencies  for 
road  instruction  are  the  various  state  highway  departments. 
The  educational  work  carried  on  by  these  offices  is  quite  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  national  office.  Lectures,  correspondence, 
bulletins,  and  annual  reports  all  help  to  serve  the  desired  end, 
while  much  actual  surveying,  supervision,  and  engineering 
assistance  of  every  kind  is  afforded  for  county  and  local 
officials. 

Among  the  many  other  agencies  now  in  the  field  of  highway 
enlightenment  should  be  mentioned  the  meetings,  reports, 
and  general  propaganda  work  of  road  organizations,  both 
large  and  local.  Another  agency  deserving  special  notice  for 
the  daily  increase  of  good  road  sentiment  is  the  newspaper. 
It  would  be  difficult,  indeed,  to  measure  the  influence  of  the 

1  For  a  full  explanation  of  the  services  of  the  Office  of  Public  Roads, 
and  an  excellent  practical  discussion  of  the  road  problem,  see  Roads, 
Paths  and  Bridges,  by  L.  W.  Page,  published  by  the  Sturgis  &  Walton 
Co.,  New  York.     Price  85  cents  postpaid. 


128   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

general  press  in  this  direction.  Special  road  magazines,  also, 
as  Southern  Good  Roads  (Lexington,  North  Carolina)  and 
Good  Roads  (150  Nassau  Street,  New  York)  are  contributing 
a  full  share  to  the  growth  of  such  sentiment.  But  the  farm 
journals  of  the  country  are  upon  the  whole  scarcely  giving 
as  much  attention  to  roads  and  the  other  social  forces  of  farm 
life  as  they  might.  Of  recent  years  the  farmers'  institute, 
the  Grange,  and  other  farm  organizations  are  increasing,  their 
efforts   for  road   education  and  accomplishing  much.     Even 


A  Properly  Dragged  Earth  Road 

This  road,  having  been  properly  dragged  for  over  ten  years,  is  now  alfflost  as 

hard  and  firm  as  stone 

railroad  companies  are  joining  the  reform  movement,  and 
"good  roads  trains,"  carrying  expert  lecturers  and  improved 
machinery,  have  been  run  by  several  lines.  The  special 
courses  in  road  instruction  offered  in  state  agricultural  col- 
leges are  another  important  factor  in  this  new  development. 
Not  only  the  extended  courses  designed  for  the  thorough 
training  of  expert  engineers,  but  the  "short  courses"  planned 
for  practical  farmers  and  petty  road  officers  are  significant 
in  this  direction. 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        129 

The  Country  School  and  the  Road  Problem.  Responsi- 
bility of  the  country  school  for  the  azvakcning  of  a  good  roads 
sentiment.  But  with  all  this  activity  the  social  and  economic 
value  of  good  roads  is  not  yet  sufficiently  appreciated.  Pri- 
marily the  road  issue,  though  a  national  problem,  is  in  the 
hands  of  farmers,  and  the  real  farmer  out  in  the  field  and  his 
wife  in  the  kitchen  are  the  very  people  who  are  not  being 
reached  as  they  should  be  and  must  be.  For  this  reason  the 
educational  agencies  now  existing  in  the  immediate  farm 
community  must  be  utilized  to  preach  the  doctrine  of  good 
roads.  This  brings  the  problem  to  the  door  of  the  country 
school.  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  the  little  country  school 
should  attempt  to  give  technical  instruction  in  road  building. 
This  would  be  thoroughly  ridiculous.  It  is  meant,  however, 
that  the  country  school  should  do  its  part  in  instituting  a 
good  roads  sentiment  among  the  children  and  people  of  its 
community.    And  this  is  by  no  means  ridiculous. 

Just  how  this  instruction  shall  be  given  will  depend  upon 
the  individual  teacher  and  the  conditions  under  which  she 
works.  Sometimes  it  may  be  done  quite  incidentally,  largely 
through  general  conversation  with  the  children  and  older 
boys.  Such  means  supplemented  by  a  stock  of  government 
bulletins,  procured  from  the  Office  of  Public  Roads,  after  the 
manner  set  forth  in  the  appendix  of  this  book  (Section  5), 
which  can  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  boys  for  reading  and 
comment,  may  prove  effective.  Frequently  the  subject  can  be 
related  to  the  general  work  of  the  school.  This  is  quite  the 
best  way.  Drainage  is  related  to  geography  and  also  to 
roads.  Therefore  why  not  introduce  the  two  strangers,  geog- 
raphy and  roads,  through  their  common  relative?  The  laws 
of  nature  study  or  science,  also,  as  shown  in  freezing,  con- 
traction, and  expansion  will  be  found  to  embody  many  prin- 
ciples that  can  be  admirably  illustrated  by  the  road  before 
the  schoolhouse.     And  what  could   furnish  a  better  subject 


I30   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

for  themes  and  written  composition  than  the  improvement 
of  roads? 

When  a  more  systematic  and  connected  study  is  possible, 
it  may  be  given  in  the  country  Hfe  course  suggested  on  page 
245.  Such  a  course  was  once  worked  out  and  presented  in 
a  country  school;  therefore  it  can  be  done  again,  or  some- 
thing similar  to  it.  In  giving  this  work  the  important  thing 
is  to  stimulate  the  doing  of  things.  Active  expression  in  the 
school  where  this  became  a  reality  was  provided  for  in  the 
fact  that  the  larger  boys  of  the  school  cut  the  weeds  of  the 
roadway  bordering  the  school  yard  and  their  own  homes,  and 
dragged  their  allotted  section  of  highway.  These  same  boys 
and  girls  in  the  study  of  the  various  types  of  roads  performed 
several  simple  experiments,  as  the  mixing  of  sands  and  clays 
and  the  puddling  of  fresh  earth  into  a  state  of  plasticity, 
an  experiment  which  illustrates  the  principle  of  road  drag- 
ging. They  also  constructed  a  miniature  macadam  road  while 
studying  that  type,  to  illustrate  some  of  the  principles  in- 
volved. Short  newspaper  articles  on  the  road  question  were 
written  meantime  and  contributed  to  the  local  papers. 

In  Missouri  the  teaching  of  some  elementary  road  study 
in  the  schools  is  now  required  by  law  and  a  special  text, 
Ravenel's  Road  Primer  (A.  C.  McClurg  and  Company,  Chi- 
cago) has  been  prepared  for  use  in  this  connection.  Country 
teachers  who  feel  incompetent  to  organize  the  work  sug- 
gested here  upon  their  own  initiative  will  do  well  to  use 
this  text,  which  is  simply  written  and  well  adapted  to  its  pur- 
pose. Every  country  school  library  should  possess  a  copy  of 
this  primer. 

But  in  road  education  as  in  all  lines  of  social  service  the 
country  school  must  reach  not  only  children  but  adults,  too. 
This  can  be  done  through  debates,  papers,  and  discussions  in 
local  community  meetings  held  at  the  schoolhouse  as 
described  in  Chapter  X,  and  through  the  interest  stimulated 


ROADS  AND  THE  ROAD  PROBLEM        131 

by  the  teacher's  personal  leadership  and  suggestion.  The  co- 
operation of  the  teacher  and  school  with  the  local  farmers' 
institute  and  road  organization  will  be  sure  to  prove  fruitful 
also.  In  neighborhoods  where  no  local  organizations  exist, 
the  school,  through  the  interest  it  creates,  may  become  the 
prime  factor  in  starting  such  an  association  and  inducing 
farmers  to  drag  their  sections  of  road  systematically  and 
scientifically. 

All  this  implies,  to  be  sure,  that  the  country  teacher  should 
know  something  of  roads  and  road  improvements,  and  it  is  not 
impossible  to  acquire  this  knowledge  immediately  notwith- 
standing all  difficulties.  Some  of  the  essential  things  country 
teachers  should  know  about  roads  and  impress  upon  chil- 
dren are  included  in  this  chapter.  By  considering  the  points 
here  presented  and  reading  the  government  bulletins  and 
other  starred  references  in  the  bibliography  on  roads,  also  by 
attending  road  meetings  when  possible,  and  talking  to  local 
road  officers  and  farmers,  the  earnest  teacher  w'ill  find  that 
she  has  become  quite  a  road  propagandist  before  she  knows  it. 

Influence  of  roads  upon  the  zvelfare  of  country  schools. 
In  this  undertaking,  as  in  all  other  attempts  at  making  the 
school  a  community  center,  teachers  and  others  interested 
must  hold  to  the  long  view  of  rural  progress.  They  must 
see  involved  in  this  road  movement  the  new  destiny  of  the 
country  school,  which  is  determiiied  by  road  improvement 
more  largely  than  by  any  other  one  factor.  They  must  see 
standing  at  the  end  of  the  undrained  stretch  of  mire  the  little 
ungraded,  inefficient  country  school,  but  standing  at  the  end 
of  the  smooth  serviceable  highway  the  country  school  of  the 
future,  graded,  consolidated,  pleasant  to  look  upon,  and 
thoroughly  efficient — a  farm  school  of  the  new  day,  capable 
of  answering  all  the  requirements  laid  upon  it. 

Roads  of  the  Future.     This  new  life  means  new  demands 
upon  the  roads  of  the  future.     It  means  in  the  first  place  a 


132 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


road  which  will  be  serviceable  at  all  times  and  in  all  seasons, 
and  for  this  there  is  but  one  solution — hard  surfaced  roads. 
True,  they  will  be  expensive,  but  they  must  come.  The  new- 
road  must  be  beautiful,  also,  with  green  sward  and  stately 
trees,  for  beauty  ministers  to  as  real  a  need  as  utility.  To  these 
qualities  of  serviceableness  and  beauty  the  road  of  the  future 
must  add  permanence.  It  must  meet  all  the  requirements  now 
being  placed  upon  it.     It  must  especially  be  beyond  the  rav- 


The  Road  of  the  Future 

Macadamized,  and  serviceable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year 

ages  of  the  automobile,  for  the  automobile  is  here  to  stay  and 
to  become  the  general  servant  of  all  the  people.  The  farmer, 
who  but  yesterday  stood  by  the  side  of  the  road  holding,  his 
horses'  heads  and  heaping  vengeance  upon  the  motorist,  rides 
today  in  an  automobile  himself  and  enjoys  its  convenience  as 
much  as  others.  Presently  he  will  send  his  children  in  one 
over  thoroughly  serviceable  roads  to  the  farm  school  of  the 
future.    Then  will  the  new  country  life  be  full  upon  us. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY  IN  THE 
SOLUTION  OF  THE  FARM  PROBLEM^ 

Function  of  the  Country  School  Defined.  Some  of  the 
possibilities  of  the  farm  home,  the  country  church,  the  Grange, 
the  farmers'  institute,  and  of  roads,  as  agencies  for  country 
Hfe  progress,  have  been  set  forth  in  preceding  pages.  It  now 
remains  to  consider  in  more  detail  the  office  of  the  country 
school  and  the  significance  of  the  rural  educational  system  to 
this  end.  As  a  preliminary  step  in  this  treatment  it  will  first 
be  necessary  to  define  the  function  of  the  country  school. 

The  permanent,  primary  function  of  the  school  in  all  society 
is  to  educate.  From  the  elementary  school,  which  deals  chiefly 
with  children,  to  the  university  or  special  school  for  adults, 
this  responsibility  holds,  and  must  ever  be  acknowledged  the 
first  duty  of  the  school.  But  within  recent  years  a  broadened 
interpretation  and  definition  of  education  has  grown  up,  until 
the  school  has  taken  over  many  of  the  duties  of  the  home,  the 
church,  and  other  social  institutions.  In  the  congested  dis- 
tricts of  cities  the  school  often  becomes  practically  the  whole 
guardian  of  unfortunate  children,  not  only  educating,  but 
feeding,  clothing,  and  doctoring  them  as  well.  These  manifold 
tasks  are  put  upon  the  school  because  of  all  social  institutions 
it  is  most  adaptable  and  most  capable  of  serving  numerous  and 
varied  ends.     Thus  it  has  come  about  that  any  neglected  or 

1  It  was  my  first  intention  to  divide  this  book  at  this  point  into  two 
parts,  but  upon  further  reflection  it  seemed  better  not  to  do  so.  The 
chief  difficulty  of  the  country  school  is  just  this  separation  from  com- 
munity life  which  I  should  thereby  emphasize. — The  author. 

133 


134   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

unprovided  condition  of  society  is  usually  relegated  to  the 
school  for  correction.  In  considering  the  undesirable  aspects 
of  the  present  rural  situation  it  is  therefore  not  unwarranted 
to  maintain,  as  is  being  done  throughout  this  book,  that  a 
special  function  of  the  country  school,  imposed  by  present 
rural  conditions,  is  that  it  shall  become  an  initiator  of  various 
phases  of  rural  progress  and  a  center  for  the  building  of  the 
community.  Expressing  this  twofold  task  of  the  school — 
that  is,  its  educational  and  its  social  responsibility — as  one,  the 
complete  function  of  the  country  school  may  be  sum.marized  in 
the  phrase,  the  country  school  as  a  center  for  redirected  educa- 
tion and  community  building. 

The  School  as  a  Center  for  the  Building  of  the  Country 
Community.  In  communities  where  they  are  well  estab- 
lished, the  church,  the  Grange,  the  farmers'  institute,  and  other 
social  organizations  and  institutions  have  unquestionably  a 
profound  influence  upon  rural  welfare.  But  there  are  still 
many  sections  even  in  our  richest  agricultural  states,  in  which 
little  or  no  attention  is  given  to  any  of  these  agencies.  Country 
churches  are  rare,  the  Grange  is  little  known  to  the  general 
rural  public,  and  but  four  per  cent  of  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States  take  any  active  part  in  the  farmers'  institute. 
The  chief  reason  for  this  is  that  farmers  do  not  appreciate  the 
value  of  strong  social  institutions  and  well-developed  commu- 
nities. This  resolves  the  whole  question  into  a  matter  of  the 
enlightenment  or  education  of  country  people,  and  makes  the 
school,  the  institution  of  society  assigned  to  control  educa- 
tion, a  chief  means  of  attack  upon  the  rural  situation.  It  is 
through  the  country  school  and  its  influence  that  farmers, 
both  present  and  future,  may  most  directly  come  to  appre- 
ciate the  true  significance  of  country  life  and  the  possibili- 
ties of  all  organizations  and  agencies  w^orking  toward  its 
betterment. 

By  this  it  is  not  implied  that  the  school  can  do  all,  or  that 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY 


135 


it  shall  assume  the  work  of  other  institutions.  The  church  can 
reach  a  higher  pinnacle  of  spiritual  power  than  the  school — 
the  farmers'  institute,  the  farmers'  club,  and  the  business  and 
professional  organization,  each  has  its  special  task  which  the 
school  can  neither  cover  nor  gainsay.  The  fundamental  con- 
tention here,  and  the  only  contention,  is  that  the  school  is 
generally  the  best  and  most  available  agency  in  the  local  coun- 


The  Country  School  as  a  Community  Center 

try  community  for  introducing  various  phases  of  rural  im- 
provement and  for  instituting  immediate  progress.  By  reason 
of  its  peculiarly  effective  position  the  school,  as  shown  in  ear- 
lier chapters,  can  react  upon  home  life,  further  church  prog- 
ress, teach  the  necessity  of  road  improvement,  and  cooperate 
in  the  introduction  and  development  of  the  Grange,  farmers' 
institute,  and  other  farm  organizations.  In  other  words,  the 
school  is  the  best  and  most  available  center  for  the  iipbuildini^ 


136   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

of  the  country  community  and  may  become  the  most  imme- 
diate and  effective  local  agency  in  the  solution  of  the  farm 
problem.  Hence  the  importance  of  the  rural  educational  sys- 
tem and  the  necessity  of  giving  it  serious  attention  in  any 
attempt  at  bettering  the  unfavorable  conditions  of  country 
life. 

This  interpretation  of  the  function  of  the  country  school 
as  one  of  social  leadership  and  community  service  implies  that 
it  must  reach  not  only  children  but  adults.  No  argument  is 
needed  to  establish  the  desirability  of  this  service,  and  the 
method  through  which  it  may  be  realized  is  suggested  in  the 
concluding  paragraphs  of  former  chapters  and  in  the  illustra- 
tions of  country  teacher  leadership  cited  in  chapter  nine.   ' 

It  should  be  clearly  understood,  however,  that  the  social 
interpretation  of  the  function  of  the  country  school  made  here 
does  not  necessarily  imply,  and  should  by  no  means  tolerate, 
a  neglect  of  its  educational  responsibility.  The  first  duty  of 
every  school,  as  formerly  stated,  is  to  educate.  But  to  edu- 
cate properly  is  to  cause  a  change  in  conduct,  and  the  hypothe- 
sis that  the  country  school  shall  so  govern  its  instruction  as 
to  cause  a  change  in  social  attitude  and  community  condi- 
tions and  relationships  in  no  way  clashes  with  its  original  pur- 
pose. In  fact,  it  may  be  made  to  further  educational  ends  as 
will  appear  in  the  record  of  concrete  instances  later  (page  230). 

Advantages  of  the  Country  School  for  Rural  Institu- 
tional Leadership.  The  advantages  of  the  school  for 
serving  as  a  community  center  and  as  a  temporary  leader 
among  rural  social  institutions  may  be  briefly  summarized  as 
follows : 

1.  The  school  is  the  chief  agency  of  education  and,  as 
formerly  pointed  out,  the  whole  rural  problem  is  a  problem 
of  education. 

2.  It  is  a  democratic  community  institution,  representing 
the  whole  community.    In  this  respect  the  school  stands  alone. 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY 


137 


and  in  sharp  contrast  with  all  other  rural  institutions;  since 
the  church  usually  means  just  the  church  members;  the 
Grange,  its  own  patrons,  and  even  the  farmers'  institute  but 
its  own  following.  With  the  school,  on  the  other  hand,  every 
individual  in  the  neighborhood  has  a  vital  connection,  owing 
to  the  taxes  it  necessitates,  if  for  no  other  reason. 

3.    It  exists  everywhere.     Every  country  community  has  a 
school,  though  the  Grange,   farmers'  institute,  and  even  the 


An  Average  Country  School 
Untold  possibilities  for  community  service  lie  dormant  in  such  schools  as  this 

church,  may  be  lacking.  This  general  availability,  together 
with  its  peculiar  educational  function  and  democratic  nature, 
gives  the  school  a  tremendous  leverage  upon  rural  conditions. 

4.  Its  financial  support  is  legally  assured.  This  is  more 
significant  than  at  first  appears.  Because  of  this  provision  the 
school  as  an  institution  is  relieved  from  the  humiliating  penury 
that  often  characterizes  the  country  church. 

5.  The  school  as  a  specialized  agent  of  the  state  is  an  insti- 
tution of  authority.    It  compels  attention,  support,  and  attend- 


138   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

ance.     Here  again  the  school  excels  the  church  and  all  other 
social  institutions  except  the  state. 

6.  It  can  fulfill  a  wide  range  of  demands;  not  only  educa- 
tional, but  spiritual,  social,  and  professional  as  well. 

7.  It  can  innovate  progress  along  all  lines  and  through 
various  other  rural  social  institutions,  as  has  been  set  forth  in 
the  early  chapters  of  this  discussion. 

8.  It  is  most  immediate  in  the  effect  of  its  work  and  leader- 
ship because  closest  to  the  heart  of  the  general  public. 

9.  It  is  most  nearly  ready  to  lead  because  country  teachers 
of  all  rural  social  workers  are  most  easily  and  quickly  trained 
for  rural  leadership.  This  point  is  of  vital  significance  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  function  of  the  country  school  as  made 
here  and  will  be  given  further  consideration  in  a  later  chapter. 

Leadership  of  the  School  Largely  a  Temporary  Function. 
But  with  all  these  advantages  for  institutional  and  community 
leadership,  the  school  must  recognize  its  limitations  and  give 
place  to  other  institutions  when  once  these  are  established 
and  awakened,  realizing  that  its  chief  mission  has  been  ful- 
filled through  the  stimulation  of  other  agencies.  This  is  a 
very  significant  conception  which  all  who  would  work  toward 
the  best  development  of  country  life,  however  enthusiastic 
over  the  leadership  of  the  school,  or  church,  or  other  single 
institution,  should  ponder  well.  Any  argument  among  social 
institutions  of  which  shall  be  first  and  which  last  is  altogether 
futile.  There  is  more  than  enough  work  for  all,  and  the  only 
safe  criterion  for  the  school,  as  for  other  institutions,  is 
t-o  fix  attention  on  the  ultimate  and  common  good  and 
direct  its  action  accordingly,  leading  or  following  as  occasion 
demands.  When  the  time  comes  for  the  school  to  follow,  it 
must  accept  the  change  of  rank  and  fulfill  its  obligations  as 
efficiently  as  before ;  though  it  may  be  said  that  the  large  and 
varied  office  of  education  will  always  be  sufficiently  important 
to  dignify  any  institution.     In  the  present  transitory  period, 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY 


139 


however,  the  place  of  the  school  in  country  community  life  is 
undoubtedly  that  of  institutional  leadership,  and.  for  this 
office  it  must  shortly  procure  the  necessary  degree  of 
efficiency. 

Needs  of  the  Country  School.  The  needs  of  the  school 
for  realizing  the  twofold  function  just  defined  are  many.  The 
following  enumeration  is  not  complete,  but  covers  the  most 
urgent  deficiencies : 

1.  Educational  redirection.  By  this  is  meant  the  imparting  of 
instruction  to  country  children  in  terms  of  rural  experience. 

2.  Physical  improvement. 

3.  Social  redirec- 
t  i  o  n  .  The  school 
must  gain  the  com- 
munity attitude  and 
become  a  community 
or  social  center. 

4.  Trained  teach- 
ers. 

5.  Better  super- 
vision. 

6.  Better  legisla- 
tion. 

7.  A  change  of 
system,  or  consolida- 
tion. 

8.  Increased  cooperation  on  the  part  of  people  and  di- 
rectors. 

9.  Sufficient  revenue. 

The  first  seven  of  these  needs  will  receive  detailed  discus- 
sion in  succeeding  chapters.  The  last  two  are  implied  through- 
out as  the  basis  of  all  other  improvement,  but  may  be  en- 
forced by  a  word  of  comment  here.  A  sufficient  revenue, 
which  implies  cooperation  on  the  part  of  people  and  directors, 


An  Ancient  Landmark  of  Learning 

The  strong  country  school  of  forty  years  ago 
now  presents  but  a  poor  shadow  of  its  former 
glory 


140   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

since  money  is  the  medium  through  which  pubHc  interest  is 
made  tangible,   is   absolutely   fundamental  to   country   school 
improvement.     Good  teaching,  modern  buildings,  and  ample 
equipment,  all  cost  money — more  money  than  country  people 
are  often  willing  to  provide.     Two  aspects  of  this  issue  are 
significant.     In  the  first  place  it  is  evident  upon  a  little  inves- 
tigation that  farmers  as  a  rule  usually  raise  but  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  amount  they  might  legally  levy  for  school  mainte- 
nance and  improvement.    Country  school  penury  is  proverbial. 
This  is  quite  as  true  in  wealthy  sections  as  in  poor  agricul- 
tural  regions.       In    Illinois,    for   example,    it    is    unusual    to 
find  a  country  district  levying  the  maximum  legal  rate,  though 
scores  of  towns  and  cities  in  the  state  are  taxing  themselves 
to  this  limit  and  thinking  nothing  of  it.     The  inequality  that 
exists  here  is  shown  in  the  fact  that  for  the  United  States  as 
a  whole  an  average  of  about  thirty-three  dollars  is  expended 
annually  for  the  education  of  each  city  child^  while  for  each 
country  child  but  thirteen  dollars  is  used.     Until  this  injustice 
is  remedied  the  question  of  revenue  will  remain  a  fundamental 
need  of  the  country  school.     A  second  aspect  of  the  money 
question  as  related  to  rural  education  is  that  what  money  is 
raised  by  farmers  for  school  purposes  fails  to  realize  adequate 
returns.     The  underlying  reason   for  this  rests  in  the   ineffi- 
ciency of  the  present  country  school  system  as  will  appear  in 
the  following  paragraphs. 

The  One-Teacher  Country  School  System  and  Its  De- 
fects. The  one-teacher  school  system,  as  frequently  main- 
tained, has  served  humanity  long  and  well.  In  New  England 
alone,  it  has  turned  out  enough  poets,  statesmen,  writers,  and 
scientists  to  recommend  any  system  of  education,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  its  power  in  the  later  pioneer  days  of  the  West.  Let 
us  not  minimize  the  good  work  of  the  little  red  schoolhouse. 
It  has  dear  associations  for  us  all ;  it  has  had  untold  influence 
on  the  American  republic.     But  it  has  served  its  day.       It 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY 


141 


belongs,  not  to  the  present  with  its  many  urgent  demands  for 
varied  and  special  training,  but  to  the  past.  As  a  system,  it  is 
typical  of  a  primitive  social  order  in  which  each  individual  was 
a  jack-of-all-trades,  fitted  to  do  all  things  passably  well,  and 
no  one  thing  especially  so.  It  has  no  place  in  a  highly  com- 
plicated social  life  like  that  of  today,  in  which  competition  is 
the  keynote  of  the  age,  and  where  each  individual  must  spe- 


Harlem  Consolidated  School,  Winnebago  County,  Illinois 

Consolidation  offers  the  only  adequate  solution  of  the  country  school  problem 


cialize  more  or  less  and  make  himself  capable  of  rendering 
good  service  in  at  least  one  line. 

Two  significant  facts  should  be  noted  by  those  who  extol 
the  present  country  school.^  In  the  first  place,  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  in  the  history  of  education  the  one-teacher 
system  was  developed  first,  and  that  the  graded  system  came 
later  as  an  outgrowth  and  improvement.    This  in  itself  is  some 


142   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

proof  of  the  increased  efficiency  of  the  latter.  Another  point 
that  should  be  forcibly  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  those 
who  recall  the  ungraded  rural  system  in  its  prime,  and  pic- 
ture the  country  school  of  today  as  enrolling  from  fifty  to 
ninety  half-grown  and  adult  young  men  and  women,  and  mak- 
ing its  influence  felt  throughout  the  whole  community,  is  the 
fact  that  the  strong  country  school  of  forty  years  ago  has 
gradually  decayed  and  now  presents  but  a  poor  shadow  of 
its  former  glory.  What  the  unobserving,  unthinking  farmer  of 
today  recalls  as  the  country  school  of  his  boyhood,  no  longer 
exists.  The  wide-awake  scholarly  young  man  he  remembers  as 
the  country  teacher  has  long  ago  attained  his  desired  ambition 
in  the  law  or  the  ministry,  and  has  been  replaced  by  an  inex- 
perienced, untrained  slip  of  a  girl  from  city  high  school  or 
neighboring  community.  The  comfortable,  convenient  building 
he  remembers  is  now  aged  and  dilapidated,  while  the  troop  of 
hearty  boys  and  girls  his  imagination  sees  have  turned  city- 
ward in  search  of  a  more  extended  training  than  the  old 
system  can  maintain,  and  left  but  a  handful  of  unfortunate 
stragglers.  There  was  a  time,  it  is  true,  when  the  country 
school  was  the  center  of  attraction ;  when  spelling-bees,  liter- 
ary societies,  singing  schools,  and  debating  clubs  made  it  the 
life  of  the  neighborhood.  The  school  system  was  then  fitted 
to  the  social  needs  of  the  generation.  But  owing  to  industrial 
changes,  educational  specialization,  city  migration,  and  many 
other  causes,  this  time  has  gone  by.  Such  rural  school  pros- 
perity can  be  again  attained  only  through  the  upbuilding  and 
adaptation  of  the  whole  educational  system.  The  old  country 
school  of  the  past  has  gone,  never  to  return. 

By  this  it  is  not  implied  that  there  are  now  no  well- 
conducted  schools  under  the  old  system.  Here  and  there  are 
still  communities  where  the  highest  possible  efficiency  of  the 
system  is  realized.  Such  instances,  however,  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule,  and  in  their  prosperity  but  prove  the 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY     143 

limitations  of  the  ungraded  system.  Suppose  a  school  to  be 
blessed  with  a  capable,  earnest  teacher  and  a  liberal  board  of 
directors,  housed  in  a  modern,  sanitary  building,  and  composed 
of  a  fair  number  of  children — Siippose,  in  brief,  that  every- 
thing possible  has  been  done  to  add  to  the  work  and  worth  of 
the  school;  yet,  even  under  the  most  favorable  conditions, 
three  incurable  defects  still  remain: 

1.  The  school  having  from  six  to  eight  grades,  each  grade 
with  at  least  four  daily  recitations,  demands  more  work  than 
one  teacher  can  possibly  do  well  in  the  meager  time  allotted, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  strength,  scholarship,  and  ability  required 
for  such  a  task. 

2.  The  small  number  of  children  enrolled  very  frequently 
makes  an  uninteresting  school,  and  never  fails,  even  in  larger 
schools,  to  necessitate  the  formation  of  some  classes  of  one, 
two,  or  three  children.  Such  conditions  are  abnormal  and 
anti-social.  The  stray  children  of  these  classes  consequently 
lose  interest,  dawdle,  and  often  drop  out  of  school  altogether, 
through  the  simple  lack  of  companionable  associates. 

3.  The  third  defect,  the  fact  that  the  system  provides  no 
high  school  course  and  still  costs  as  much  per  capita  as  a 
graded  system  providing  the  best  of  secondary  schools,  is 
perhaps  its  worst  feature.  Country  people  in  order  to  secure 
the  advantages  of  a  high  school  for  their  children  do  one  of 
two  things,  both  detrimental  to  farm  life.  In  the  first  place, 
they  usually  send  the  boy  or  girl  under  consideration  away 
from  the  home  into  the  care  of  an  urban  high  school  whose 
interests,  courses,  and  tendencies  are  naturally  so  arranged  as 
to  lead  the  country  child  directly  away  from  the  farm  to  the 
town  or  city.  In  this  way,  hundreds  of  the  most  capable 
young  people  are  drained  from  the  country  every  year.  The 
farmer,  in  the  meantime,  proceeds  to  support  two  schools, 
one  in  the  home  district  and  one  in  town,  thus  yielding  him- 
self to  as  double  and  unequal  a  system  of  taxation  as  any 


144   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

ever  devised.  Sometimes,  as  an  alternative  for  this,  the  whole 
family  moves  to  town  "to  educate  the  children."  Whoever 
has  seen  the  piteous  spectacle  of  idle  farmers  discontentedly 
loafing  away  their  time  while  the  children  are  being  educated 
— and   who   has   not? — needs   no   comment   on   this   state   of 


Domestic  Science  in  the  Harlem  Consolidated  School 

Redirected  teaching  can  here  become  a  reality 

affairs.  And  here,  too,  the  country  suffers  again.  We  shall 
never  solve  the  farm  problem  as  long  as  the  most  energetic 
and  ambitions  leaders  of  country  life  are  being  forced  into 
cities  to  provide  educational  advantages  for  their  children. 

The  defects  of  the  present  rural  educational  system  just 
cited  are  the  permanent  ones   for  which  no  remedy  can  be 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY 


145 


provided  without  a  fundamental  change  of  system.  As  for- 
merly stated,  they  exist  even  under  the  most  favorable  condi- 
tions. But  unfortunately,  conditions  are  not  always,  in  fact, 
not  ordinarily,  favorable.  Usually,  country  schools  are  more 
inefficient  and  present  far  more  defects  than  those  just  por- 
trayed. Physically,  they  are  often  eyesores  on  the  land- 
scape. Socially  and  educationally, 
they  are  equal  failures.  Chil- 
dren's clubs,  parent  conferences, 
and  community  meetings  are 
usually  all  unknown.  Who  cares 
to  go  to  a  dingy,  dilapidated  build- 
ing to  spend  an  afternoon  or  eve- 
ning? And  how  much  redirected 
teaching  is  likely  to  be  done  by  a 
teacher  who  is  compelled  to  hear 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  recita- 
tions in  one  day?  Still  another 
defect  of  the  one-teacher  system 
lies  in  the  fact  that  though  teach- 
ing, like  all  other  professions,  is 
now  characterized  by  the  highest 
specialization,  one  teacher  is  ex- 
pected to  handle  equally  well  all 
ages    of    children     from    six    to 

twenty.  These  several  defects  are  serious  and  numerous 
enough,  it  would  seem,  to  condemn  any  educational  system. 
The  Country  School  System  of  the  Future.  The  coun- 
try school  system  of  the  future  must  remedy  the  weaknesses 
of  the  existing  system  just  emphasized.  This  means,  briefly, 
that  it  must  be  a  system  typical  of  our  present  complex  social 
life.  In  other  words,  it  must  be  a  several-teacher  or  graded 
system,  which  will  make  possible  a  division  of  labor  among 


An    Expensive    Estab- 
lishment 

Teacher  and  pupils.      Cost  per 
capita  $125  a  year 


146   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

teachers,  permitting  some  degree  of  specialization,  and  there- 
fore better  professional  service. 

By  referring  to  the  country  school  system  of  the  future  as 
a  graded  system  it  is  not  meant  that  it  shall  be  a  rigid,  over- 
organized  machine,  imitating  the  errors  of  large  city  schools. 
Present  inefficiency  is  to  be  preferred  to  this.  The  end  desired 
is  a  division  of  labor  among  teachers,  not  overdone  grading 
and  the  copying  of  urban  models.  But  the  one  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  the  other.  And  this  the  country  school  system 
of  the  future,  as  here  conceived,  will  clearly  verify. 

To  procure  such  a  system,  it  is  only  necessary  for  farmers 
to  adjust  themselves  to  their  environment,  eliminate  distance 
by  transportation,  gather  their  children  into  larger  groups, 
collect  scattered  funds,  and  combine  the  heroic  -but  fruitless 
and  ineffective  effort  now  wasted  on  the  old,  outgrown  sys- 
tem. Why  advantages  so  easily  gained  by  the  simple  act  of 
increasing  the  size  of  the  district  are  so  slowly  grasped  will 
probably  long  remain  a  mystery  in  the  record  of  education. 
Perhaps  the  very  simplicity  of  the  undertaking  baffles  interest 
and  faith  in  its  efficiency. 

However  this  may  be,  it  is  clearly  evident  that  such  a  sys- 
tem, so  maintained,  will  provide,  among  other  things,  a  com- 
fortable, sanitary,  attractive  school  home  where  country  chil- 
dren may  enjoy  all  the  conveniences  ordinarily  ascribed  to  city 
life ;  a  building  which,  at  least,  can  be  what  few  country 
schools  are  now — clean,  well-lighted,  well-heated,  and  properly 
ventilated.  A  school  of  this  kind,  moreover,  owing  to  its 
size,  dignity,  and  attractiveness,  can  exert  a  social  influence 
impossible  to  the  little  one-room  school  set  off  by  itself  in 
comparative  isolation.  The  consolidated  school  may  become 
an  influential  neighborhood  center  for  lectures,  talks,  concerts, 
literary  programs,  and  similar  gatherings.  The  nature  of  the 
system  also  provides  the  one-in-a-class  child  companionable 
associates,  increases  the  general  interest  and  enthusiasm  of 


THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AS  AN  AGENCY 


147 


the  school  through  increased  numbers,  and  through  the  min- 
gHng  of  the  children,  soon  overcomes  the  social  bans  and 
barriers  of  the  small  neighborhood,  in  the  broader  interests 
of  the  larger  community. 

Educationally,  the  graded  system  makes  possible  for  the 
children  of  farmers  all  the  advantages  now  enjoyed  by  the 
most  favored  city  children.     No  other  method  of  providing 


School  Float,  Harlem  Consolidated  School 

The  consolidated  school  can  exert  a  social  influence  impossible  to  the  little  one- 
room   school 


the  country  boy  and  girl  equal  opportunity  has  ever  been 
devised.  Three  or  four  teachers  doing,  the  work  formerly 
attempted  by  one  can  naturally  do  greater  justice  both  to 
themselves  and  to  the  children  under  their  charge.    Redirected 


148   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

teaching  and  a  vitalized  course  of  study  can  then  become  a 
reahty.  This,  and  the  ultimate  fulfilment  of  such  a  course 
through  a  good  high  school,  makes  the  graded  or  consolidated 
system  the  only  adequate  solution  of  the  country  school 
problem. 

Consolidation  the  Fundamental  Need  of  Country  Schools. 
The  country  school,  let  it  be  repeated,  is  the  most  direct  and 
immediate  point  of  attack  upon  the  unfavorable  conditions  of 
country  life.  Increasing  its  efficiency  is  necessarily  the  first 
|tep  toward  progress.  But  no  adequate  degree  of  efficiency 
is  possible  under-  the  existing  one-teacher  system.  The  imme- 
diate need  for  our  country  schools  is  for  an  army  of  far- 
seeing,  heroic  teachers  who  will  go  forth  to  impress  upon 
farmers  and  others  the  inefficiency  of  the  outgrown  system. 
But  the  fundamental  need  is  deeper  than  this.  And  upon  it 
educational  redirection,  service  as  a  community  center,  effi- 
cient teaching,  the  holding  of  trained  teachers,  and  all  else, 
depend. 

The  fundamental  need  of  country  schools  is  a  change  of 
system,  or  consolidation. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 

Definition  and  Types.  By  the  consolidation  of  country 
schools  is  meant  the  union  of  two  or  more  of  them.  Four 
classifications  of  consolidated  schools  may  be  made:     i.    The 


The  John  Swaney  Consolidated  School,  ]\IcNabb,  Putnam  County, 

Illinois 


complete  or  tozvusliip  type,  embracing  all  the  schools  of  a 
whole  township.  2.  The  partial  type,  including  but  a  frac- 
tional part  of  a  township.    3.  The  village  or  town  type,  located 

149 


150 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


in  a  town  or  village 


4.  The  country  type,  by  which  is  meant 
the  consolidated  school  located  in  the  open  country.  Of  these 
four  kinds  of  consolidated  schools,  the  last  or  country  type 
is  most  desirable  from  both  the  social  and  pedagogical  points 
of  view,  as  will  appear  throughout  this  discussion. 

Possibilities  of  Consolidation:    The  John  Sv^aney  Con- 
solidated School  of  Putnam  County,  Illinois.     As  a  concrete 


Barn  and  Janitor's  House,  John  Swaney  School 

study,  illustrating  the  splendid  possibilities  of  the  consolidated 
school,  and  explaining  the  insistent  commendation  of  consoli- 
dation made  throughout  this  book,  the  John  Swaney  Consoli- 
dated School  of  Putnam  County,  Illinois,  is  selected.  This 
school,  which  State  Superintendent  F.  G.  Blair  of  Illinois 
describes  as  ''a.  school  so  perfect  that  I  would  gladly  take  my 
boys  out  of  the  Springfield  schools  and  place  them  in  it,  if 
possible,"  was  selected  for  special  report  in  1909  by  the  Com- 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


151 


mittee  on  Industrial  Education  in  Rural  Schools  of  the  Na- 
tional Education  Association,  "as  affording  the  best  example 
of  public  sentiment,  private  Hberality,  and  wise  organization 
combined,  that  the  committee  was  able  to  find  in  any  consoli- 
dated district  in  the  United  States." 

One  of  the  most  satisfying  characteristics  of  the  John 
Swaney  School,  to  those  who  believe  in  the  fulness  of 
country  life,  is  its  location  in  an  open  country  community 
one  and  one-half  miles  from  the  nearest  village  and  ten  miles 
from  even  a  fair-sized  town.  In  April,  1908,  the  writer  pre- 
pared an  article  for  an  educational  journal  concerning  the 
history,  work,  and  spirit  of  this  school,  founded  upon  her 
personal  acquaintance  as 
a  teacher  in  the  com- 
munity. Much  of  the  fol- 
lowing account  is  taken 
from  this  article. 

The  early  settlers  of 
the  Clear  Creek  c  o  m  - 
munity  of  Putnam  County 
were  chiefly  Quakers,  w^ho 
brought  with  them  to  the 
prairies  of  the  West 
wholesome  religious 
views  and  an  enduring 
faith   in   education.     The 

first  building  erected  in  these  pioneer  days  was  probably  the 
''meeting  house,"  but  near  it  simultaneously  grew  the  com- 
munity schools.  Early  in  the  history  of  these  first  schools  two 
strong  literary  societies  sprang  up,  and  flourished  without  a 
break  for  over  a  quarter  of  a  century.  The  influence  of  these 
'iiteraries"  can  scarcely  be  imagined — nor  their  aspirations, 
either.  Shakespearean  plays  were  several  times  attempted  and 
staged  on  country  school  platforms !     Through  good  teaching, 


Teachers'  Cottage,  John  Swaney 
School 


152 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


literary  societies,  debating  clubs,  and  all,  these  early  schools 
grew  stronger  day  by  day.  Eighty  and  ninety  pupils  were 
enrolled  in  the  winter,  and  before  long  the  community  had 
earned  and  gained  a  reputation  among  school  men  for  big 
salaries,  scholarship,  and  efficiency. 

This  high  tide  of  prosperity  in  rural  education  had  lasted 
some  years  when  a  change  was  discovered.  Young  men  and 
women  no  more  capable  than  those  of  "Quaker  Lane"  were 
going  beyond  the  common  branches  and  were  acquiring  an 
academy  or  high  school  education  which  seemed  to  fit  them 

better  for  the  work  of 
the  world.  This,  these 
Quaker  parents  saw,  and, 
seeing,  determined  to  give 
their  own  children.  But 
the  country  school  of  the 
community  was  a  busy 
place.  The  teacher  was 
already  an  overburdened 
man  and  had  no  time  to 
supply  this  deficiency.  So 
the  only  alternative  was 
accepted :  the  boys  and 
girls  zvere  sent  azvay  to 
school.  Some  families  moved  to  town  to  provide  this  oppor- 
tunity and  rented  their  farms  in  the  meantime  to  foreigners, 
who  took  far  less  interest  in  educational  matters  and  soon 
changed  the  character  of  the  once  powerful  school.  The  "liter- 
aries"  died ;  the  dramatic  club  failed ;  the  debating  societies 
sickened  and  passed  away.  The  enrollment,  standing  at  eighty, 
fell  to  twenty  and  less.  It  was  at  this  point  that  the  Clear 
Creek  community  awoke  and  began  to  realize  that  the  cher- 
ished educational  system  of  the  past  was  failing;  that  it  was 


Stock  Judging  Class,  John  Swaney 
School 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


153 


failing  to  provide  what  was  due  to  every  child  under  its  control 
— namely,  an  educational  "square  deal." 

There  is  a  Grange  of  long  standing  and  great  influence  in 
this  community.  Topics  of  interest  have  been  considered  here 
twice  a  month  for  over  forty  years,  and  here  the  school  ques- 
tion was  studied  and  discussed.    The  members  of  this  Graner-'^ 

o 

finally  concluded  that  consolidation  zvas  the  only  solution  of 
their  problem.  But  such  a  conclusion  on  their  part  did  not 
mean  immediate  success.  All  voters  in  the  communitv  were 
not  convinced  Grange  members.  Some  were  ignorant  for- 
eigners, afraid  of  a  little 
tax ;  some  were  mercenary 
land  owners,  more  afraid 
of  a  little  tax. 

In  the  spring  of  1905 
the  contest  was  well  on. 
Five  districts  were  con- 
sidered in  the  scheme, 
but  an  unforeseen  diffi- 
culty, the  question  of  lo- 
cation, arose.  Farmers' 
institutes,  Grange  meet- 
ings, mass  meetings,  and 
private   discussions,   were 

centered  on  the  subject,  but  to  no  avail.  The  discord  among  the 
five  districts  was  too  great,  and  the  at^tempt  failed.  Before 
the  first  failure  was  assured,  however,  plans  were  developing 
for  the  second  effort.  This  time  only  three  adjoining  districts 
were  considered.  Petitions  were  quietly  circulated  and  signed, 
and  one  night  the  astonished  leaders  of  the  undertaking  dis- 
covered that  they  had  the  majority  of  the  legal  voters  of  each 
district.  These  petitions  were  then  presented,  according  to 
law,  to  the  township  trustees,  who,  seeing  that  the  papers  bore 


Horticultural  Class  Pruning  Trees, 
John.  Swaney  School 


154   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

the  required  majority  of  signatures,  were  supposed  to  grant  the 
prayer  of  the  petition.  But  this  they  refused  to  do.  When  such 
a  predicament  occurs,  the  school  law  of  Illinois  provides  that 
the  question  be  weighed  and  decided  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent. To  the  county  superintendent  the  petitions  were  then 
carried.  After  careful  and  deliberate  consideration,  in  a  most 
exhaustive  legal  treatise  on  the  subject,  and  at  some  peril  to 
his  political  prospects,  the  superintendent,  to  his  ever-enduring 
honor  as  a  man  and  protector  of  children,  revoked  the  decision 
of  the  trustees  and  granted  the  prayer  of  the  petition. 


Baseball  Field,  John  Swaney  School 

A  year  later  the  building  was  dedicated.  Although  not  an 
especially  wealthy  community,  liberal  donations  in  money, 
about  $2,000  in  all,  were  made.  Besides  this,  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
John  Swaney,  or,  as  they  are  afifectionately  known  to  the  chil- 
dren whose  lives  they  have  enriched,  "Uncle  John  and  Aunt 
Sade,"  gave  outright  twenty-four  acres  of  beautiful  wooded 
land  for  a  campus.  Growing  on  this  campus  are  three  hun- 
dred noble  trees,  and  through  it  winds  a  stream  with  all  the 
opportunity  for  study  and  pleasure  that  water  afifords. 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


155 


Crowning  the  campus,  here  in  the  heart  and  quiet  of  all 
this  natural  beauty,  stands  the  building.  It  was  originally 
planned  at  a  cost  of  $12,000  but  with  the  equipment  installed 
this  sum  soon  reached  approximately  $15,000.  It  is  a  brick 
structure  containing  four  good  schoolrooms,  two  laboratories, 
a  library,  offices,  a  shop  for  manual  training,  a  kitchen  for 
domestic  science,  a  basement  playroom,  a  furnace  room,  cloak- 
rooms, indoor  toilets,  and  a  large  assembly  room.  It  has  its 
own  water  system  and  is  supplied  with  light  by  gasoline  gas 


Girls'  Chorus,  John  Swaney  School 

generated  from  a  reservoir  buried  in  the  ground  outside  the- 
building. 

One  of  the  things  such  a  school  system  as  this  in  the  coun- 
try necessitates  is  the  conveyance  of  children.  The  highways 
of  the  Clear  Creek  community  are  common  earth  roads,  and 
transportation,  it  was  declared,  could  never  be  managed.  But 
the  horses,  wagons,  and  boys  of  Putnam  County  have  proved 
the  contrary.  Two  wagons  are  used.  They  are  especially  man- 
ufactured for  the  purpose  and  are  provided  with  long  side 
seats  and  curtains.      In  winter,  heaters  and  warm  robes  are 


156   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

provided.  Contracts  for  driving  are  made  for  the  year  at 
$40  per  month.  The  greatest  distance  any  child  has  to  ride 
is  about  four  and  one-half  miles.  The  wagons  start  about 
7  40  or  8  o'clock.  They  have  been  running  since  September 
3,  1906,  without  interruption  or  delay,  and  this  in  spite  of  mud, 
doubt,  fear,  and  injunctions.  Truly,  ''civilization  is  advancing 
in  Illinois  (and  elsewhere)  in  spite  of  the  mud." 

Perhaps  the  most  unique  feature  of  this  whole  plan  is 
"Clear  Creek  Cottage,"  the  home  of  the  teachers.  When  the 
old  school  buildings  were  abandoned,  one  was  in  very  good 
condition.  It  stands  on  the  campus  about  forty  rods  from  the 
new  building.  Boarding  places  for  the  five  teachers  employed 
were  hard  to  find,  and  this  building  was  remodeled  into  a 
seven-room  cottage,  a  housekeeper  employed,  and  the  problem 
of  board  and  lodging  thus  peacefully  and  happily  solved.  In 
another  corner  of  the  campus  stands  a  cottage  for  the  janitor, 
who  is  kept  in  steady  employment  during  both  summer  and 
winter. 

But  all  these  things  might  stand  here  in  hollow  mockery 
without  good  teaching.  This  the  people  of  the  John  Swaney 
School  realize,  and  have  prevented.  The  principal,  who  has 
been  well  trained  in  both  normal  school  and  university,  is  paid 
a  salary  of  $1,000  a  year.  The  other  four  teachers  are  equally 
well  trained  and  proportionately  well  compensated  for  their 
particular  work. 

The  course  of  study  in  this  school  is  no  "mere  imitation  of 
city  school  courses."  It  presents  a  well-balanced  adjustment 
of  both  cultural  and  practical  education  and  reflects  the  life 
of  the  communitv  at  everv  turn.  As^riculture  and  domestic 
science  are  taught  in  the  grades  and  are  strongly  emphasized 
in  the  high  school,  where  they  supplant  some  of  the  isolated 
formal  science  commonly  found  in  secondary  courses.  Six 
acres  of  the  campus  are  used  by  the  high  school  as  an  experi- 
ment plot,  and  an  excellent  school  garden  is  made  each  year 


Domestic  Science  Kitchen  and  Chemical  Laboratory  in  the  John 

Swaney  School 


158   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

by  children  of  the  intermediate  and  grammar  grades.  Sewing, 
manual  training,  construction,  nature  study,  music,  drawing, 
and  physical  training  further  enrich  the  course.  The  high 
school  is  fully  accredited  at  the  state  university,  and  a  large 
percentage  of  the  young  people  graduating  enter  the  College 
of  Agriculture,  returning  in  time  to  the  home  neighborhood, 
which  they  consider  ''the  best  place  in  the  world  to  live." 
Close  cooperation  with  the  homes  is  maintained  throughout 
the  school  work.  Two  leading  farmers  in  the  community  give 
instruction  in  corn  judging. ;  and  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  other 
animals  and  products  are  brought  in  frequently  by  the  stu- 
dents from  their  homes  for  class  study. 

The  social  influence  of  such  a  school  is  one  of  its  best 
features.  The  two  strong  literary  societies  organized  include 
every  pupil  in  the  school,  from  the  primary  children  to  high- 
school  seniors.  These  societies  meet  fortnightly  and  afford 
practice  in  parliamentary  usage,  and  various  forms  of  literary, 
participation.  One  or  more  good  plays  are  presented  each 
year.  Musical  organizations  add  greatly  to  the  pleasure  and 
profit  of  the  school.  Athletics,  also,  receive  due  attention  and 
are  greatly  favored  through  the  agency  of  a  special  athletic 
association.  The  campus  is  well  adapted  to  sports.  Basket- 
ball, baseball,  and  tennis  all  flourish.  But  this  social  spirit  is 
not  confined  to  the  children  alone.  Parents'  conferences, 
musicales,  entertainments,  and  community  gatherings  of  every 
description  are  held  in  the  auditorium,  and  an  annual  lecture 
course  of  the  highest  quality  is  provided.  As  indicated  in  the 
realizations  of  the  school,  there  is  everywhere  the  heartiest 
and  most  generous  devotion  on  the  part  of  the  school  patrons. 
There  is  no  farm  problem  and  no  moving  to  town  here.  Land 
has  risen  rapidly  in  value,  and  the  few  farms  rented  in  the 
district  are  sought  by  the  very  highest  class  of  renters  because 
of  the  unusual  educational  advantages  attainable.  All  that  the 
people  of  the  John  Swaney  neighborhood  have  done,  however. 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


159 


is  no  marveL    It  is  merely  an  example  of  what  might  be  done, 
in  a  modified  form,  in  any  rural  community. 

History  and  Status  of  the  Consolidation  Movement. 
Early  Beginnings  and  Present  Development.  To  Massachu- 
setts belongs  the  distinction  of  first  legalizing  transportation 
and  of  thus  originating  a  measure  which  has  done  more  in  its 
later  development  to  further  the  educational  welfare  of  coun- 
try children  than  any  other  single  act  in  the  history  of  modern 
education.  This  bill  was  passed  in  1869,  and  the  first  consoli- 
dated rural  school  in  the  United  States  was  organized  soon 

after  by  Superintendent 
William  L.  Eaton  at  Con- 
cord, Massachusetts. 
Since  this  time  the  idea 
has  grown  in  favor  and 
has  spread  westward  until 
it  is  no  longer  a  question 
of  experimentation.  Prac- 
tically the  whole  of  Mas- 
sachusetts is  now  consoli- 
dated, and  three-fourths 
of  the  states  of  the  Union 
have  adopted  the  plan 
more  or  less  fully.  Field 
Agent  George  W.  Knorr, 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  who  has 
observed  and  studied  more  consolidated  schools  than  any 
one  else  in  the  country,  considers  consolidation  "no  longer  a 
debatable  question,"  and  indeed  the  establishment  of  over  2,000 
schools  of  this  type  and  the  daily  transportation  of  a  total  of 
57,000  children  in  various  parts  of  the  country  seem  to  verify 
this  statement. 

Ohio  followed  Massachusetts  and  next  attracted  particular 
attention  through  the  centralization  of  its  rural  schools.   Here 


'   .aS^ 

"^^"^^ 

.V- 

1 

r 

•■  r,.     . 

1 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  Swaney 

'Uncle  John  and  Aunt  Sade"  gave  twenty- 
four  acres  of  land  for  the  campus  of 
the  Swaney  School 


l6o   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


the  movement  began  in  1892.  About  350  consolidated  schools 
have  since  been  established,  an  increase  of  sixty-five  having 
been  made  in  a  single  year.  In  Ashtabula  County,  where  the 
first  centralized  school  was  organized,  there  are  now  twenty- 
one.  The  most  rapid  and  remarkable  progress  thus  far  made 
in  the  history  of  consolidation,  however,  has  occurred  within 
the  last  decade,  in  the  state  of  Indiana,  where  1,600  small  dis- 
trict schools  have  been  abandoned  and  supplanted  by  about 
600  consolidated  schools.  But  the  movement  is  not  sectional, 
by  any  means.     In  the  year  191 1  Iowa  reported  a  total  of  60 

consolidated  schools ;  Illi- 
nois, 13;  Minnesota,  130; 
Kansas,  75 ;  Washington, 
120;  Idaho,  20;  Okla- 
homa, 86;  Virginia,  100; 
and  Louisiana,  250.  In 
all,  about  thirty  states 
have  recently  made  special 
legal  provision  for  the 
transportation  of  children, 
and  over  one  million  dol- 
lars is  now  expended  an- 
nually for  this  purpose. 
Consolidation  in  Indiana.  Special  attention  is  due  to  the 
state  of  Indiana  in  any  treatment  of  country  school  consolida- 
tion because  of  its  present  leadership  in  this  movement.  The 
gratifying  and  remarkable  progress  made  here  within  the  last 
decade  is  a  worthy  object  lesson  to  all  other  states.  Being 
located  in  the  very  heart  of  the  great  corn  belt,  Indiana  has 
had  the  same  difficulties  to  overcome  in  the  way  of  mud  and 
physical  handicaps  that  are  met  in  any  section.  Its  present  lead- 
ership seems  due  to  but  two  chief  causes :  far-seeing  educational 
leaders  and  expedient  school  legislation.  Among  the  legal 
provisions  furthering  the  consolidation  of  schools  in  Indiana 


Track  Team,  John  Swaney  School 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


l6l 


are  three  of  vital  effect :  i.  The  township  is  the  unit  of  school 
organization.  The  management  of  all  township  educational 
interests  is  in  the  hands  of  one  man,  the  township  school 
director,  who  is  elected  by  the  people.  This  trustee  employs 
teachers,  buys  sup- 


plies,    directs     the 
construction    and 
improvement       o  f 
buildings,  and  per- 
forms   all    other 
services   commonly 
rendered    by    local 
boards  of  directors. 
This   concentration 
will  be  readily  seen 
to  lead  to  the  union 
of  schools.    2.  The 
township       trustee 
may    legally    close 
any   school  having 
an    average     daily 
attendance    of    fif- 
teen or  fewer,  and 
must  abandon  and 
consolidate    all 
schools   having   an 
average    daily    at- 
tendance   of    not 
more  than  twelve. 
In  the   year    1907, 
according    to    the 
statement    of     Su- 
perintendent    Cot- 
ton,   this    law    re- 


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Map  of  Indiana  Showing  the  Extent  of 
Consolidation 

Indiana  leads  all  other  states  in  consolidation.  Here 
about  600  consolidated  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished and  about  20.000  school  children  are  trans- 
ported daily 


l62   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

suited  in  the  abandonment  of  about  one  thousand  weak  district 
schools.  3.  A  law  permitting  the  use  of  public  funds  for  the 
transportation  of  children,  without  which  the  system  is  prac- 
tically impossible,  is  also  on  the  statutes. 

Consolidation  is  common  in  Indiana  in  eighty-two  out  of  a 
total  of  ninety-two  counties.  Among  the  counties  that  lead 
in  this  respect  are  Delaware,  Montgomery,  LaGrange,  Tippe- 
canoe, Johnson,  Hamilton,  Wayne,  Henry,  Elkhart,  Clinton, 
and  Davies  counties.  The  movement  in  Delaware  County 
began  in  1898  and  has  steadily  grown  until  over  half  the  entire 
county  is  now  consolidated.  Fifty-nine  schools  have  been 
abandoned,  seventy-nine  wagons  are  used  in  the  county,  and 
1,464  children  are  transported.  Six  of  the  fourteen  consoli- 
dated schools  of  the  county  maintain  good  four-year  high- 
school  courses.  Liberty  township  is  wholly  centralized  in 
one  school  at  the  small  village  of  Selma.  A  good  four-year 
high-school  course  is  offered  in  this  school,  nine  teachers  are 
employed,  and  345  children  are  enrolled,  216  of  whom  are 
transported.  Thirteen  wagons  are  used  in  the  transportation 
of  the  children,  drivers  being  hired  at  an  average  daily  cost 
of  $1.85.  Another  of  the  best  instances  of  school  consolidation 
in  Indiana  is  the  Center  Grove  Consolidated  School  of  White 
River  Township  in  Johnson  County.  This  school  is  one  of 
the  largest,  most  expensive,  and  most  elaborate  consolidated 
schools  in  the  United  States.  It  is,  moreover,  a  true  country 
school,  being  located  on  a  six-acre  plot  of  ground  two  miles 
from  any  town.  The  building,  which  was  erected  at  a  total 
cost  of  about  $35,000,  was  dedicated  September  3,  1908. 

The  following  table,  quoted  from  the  Indiana  State  Report 
for  19 10,  gives  a  good  summary  of  the  present  status  of  con- 
solidation in  Indiana: 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS  163 

Statistics   on   Consolidation   in   Indiana. 
(Reported  Dec.  31,  1909.) 

A. 

1.  Total  number  of  schools  abandoned  prior  to  the  opening  of 

schools    September,    1909 1,402 

2.  Number  of  schools  transported  to  other  district  schools...,  471 

3.  Number  of  schools  transported  to  town  or  city  schools....  591 

4.  Number   of   consolidated   graded    schools   made   up   of   two 

district    schools 222 

5.  Number  of  consolidated  graded  schools  made  up  of  three 

district    schools 94 

6.  Number  of  consolidated   graded   schools  made  up   of   four 

district    schools 43 

7.  Number  of  consolidated  graded  schools  made  up  of  more 

than    four    district    schools 42 

B. 

1.  Number  of  consolidated  schools  doing  one  year  high  school 

work    53 

2.  Number  doing  two    years'    high    school    work 126 

3.  Number  doing  three   years'    high    school    work 218 

4.  Number  doing  four  years'    high    school    work 419 

C. 

1.  Number   of   children   transported 19,293 

2.  Number  of  wagons  used  in  transporting  children 1,241 

3.  Cost  per  wagon  per  day,  average $1.86 

4.  Total  cost  all  wagons  per  day $2,316.44 

5.  Number  of  pupils  transported  by  school  wagons  or  pri- 

vate   conveyances 18,767 

6.  Number  of  pupils  transported  by    interurban    cars 470 

7.  Number  of  pupils  transported  by    steam    cars 56 

D. 

Number  of  consolidated  schools  employing — 

Grade  High 

School.  School. 

Two    teachers     292  93 

Three    teachers     107  81 

Four    teachers    130  66 


164        COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Five   teachers    59  41 

Six    teachers    35  26 

Seven   teachers    29  24 

Eight   teachers    20  11 

Nine   teachers    15  13 

Ten  teachers    4  3 

More  than  ten  teachers 17  5 

Minnesota.     Notwithstanding    severe    winters    and  heavy 
snows,   many   northern  states   have   tested   consoUdation   and 


ConsoHdated  School,  Lewiston,  Minnesota 

A  nine-acre  farm  and  a  system  of  extension  work  are  two  helpful  features  of 

this  school 

found  it  feasible.  In  IMinnesota  a  law  providing  for  the 
union  of  schools  was  enacted  in  1903.  Since  this  time  over 
130  consolidated  schools  have  been  established.  The  most 
notable  example  of  consolidation  in  Minnesota  is  found 
near  the  village  of  Lewiston,  in  Winona  County.  The 
Lewiston  Consolidated  School  comprises  four  districts  and 
is  housed  in  a  modern,  commodious  building,  efficiently 
equipped  in  every  way.     The  total  enrollment  is  one  hundred 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS  165 

seventy-five,  with  a  high-school  enrollment  of  forty.  Nine 
teachers  are  employed.  The  school  term  is  nine  months  in 
length,  and  the  annual  expense  of  maintenance  in  1910  was 
$8,740,  of  which  $3,600,  according  to  the  laws  of  ^Minnesota, 
was  furnished  by  state  aid.  A  distinctive  feature  making  the 
Lewiston  school  a  notable  example  of  consolidation  is  its  nine- 
acre  school  farm.  A  second  development  of  marked  signifi- 
cance in  this  school  is  its  extension  work.  This  takes  the  form 
of  agricultural  lectures,  corn  contests,  farmers'  institutes,  and 
a  special  four  months'  course  in  agriculture  and  manual  train- 
ing, offered  during  the  winter,  which  was  attended  in  19 10  by 
fourteen  pupils.  The  efficiency  of  such  effort  for  young  men 
and  women  who  are  compelled  to  leave  school  prematurely  is 
self-evident,  and  points  the  way  to  a  large  field  of  service  for 
the  consolidated  schools  of  the  future. 

Iowa.  In  Iowa,  likewise,  the  people  are  quietly  proceeding 
to  attain  the  advantages  of  consolidation  for  their  children. 
Here  the  movement  has  affected  twenty-five  counties  and  re- 
sulted in  the  establishment  of  sixty  union  schools.  Among 
the  most  pretentious  of  these  is  the  school  at  Alarathon,  in 
Buena  Arista  County.  The  territory  of  this  school  is  com- 
posed of  what  was  formerly  the  independent  district  of  ^lara- 
thon  and  five  rural  districts.  The  present  building  was  erected 
in  1903,  at  a  cost  of  $20,000.  Two  hundred  seventy-six  chil- 
dren were  enrolled  in  1910,  of  whom  one  hundred  fifty- 
two  were  transported.  Six  hacks  are  used,  and  over  $2,000  is 
expended  annually  for  transportation.  Eight  teachers  are  em- 
ployed, and  a  good  four-year  high-school  course  is  maintained. 

Kansas.  In  passing  westward  in  an  investigation  of  con- 
solidation, some  attention  should  be  given  to  Kansas.  Here 
conditions,  both  physical  and  social,  are  unusually  favorable 
for  the  development  of  consolidation.  State  Superintendent 
E.  T.  Fairchild  has  great  faith  in  this  future  promise  and  is 
doing  much  to  fulfill  it.     Throughout  his  service  as  chief  state 


l66   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

school  officer  he  has  conducted  an  aggressive  campaign  for 
consolidation,  and  there  are  now  seventy-five  union  schools  in 
the  state.  Owing  to  the  favorable  road  conditions,  many  of 
these  schools  are  first  established  by  moving  two  or  three  old 
buildings  together  and  deferring  the  erection  of  a  new  building 
until  the  people  of  the  district  are  thoroughly  satisfied  that  the 
plan  is  good  and  practical.  Such  measures  are  not  to  be  recom- 
mended permanently,  but  show  well  the  adaptability  of  the  idea. 
Consolidation  does  not  necessarily  mean  the  erection  of  elabo- 
rate and  costly  buildings  as  anti-consolidationists  usually  imply, 
though  in  most  sections  of  the  country  there  is  no  reason  why 
the  children  of  farmers  should  not  enjoy  a  school  equipment 
equal  to  any.  Good  schools  of  this  kind  can  be  housed,  how- 
ever, in  buildings  costing  all  the  way  from  three  to  thirty  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  can  be  maintained  in  districts  composed  of 
from  two  small  districts  to  an  entire  township.  The  real 
point  of  efficiency  in  the  consolidated  school  is  not  that  it  is 
housed  in  a  better  building,  attended  by  more  children,  and 
taught  by  better  teachers  than  the  small  school,  but  that  it 
is  fundamentally  different.  Its  great  gain  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  is  a  graded  system,  insuring  a  diznsion  of  labor  among 
teachers. 

Idaho  and  Washington.  It  is  commonly  asserted  that  con- 
solidation does  not  fit  the  sparsely  settled  sections  of  the  far 
West.  To  a  certain  extent  this  is  true,  but  the  splendid  reali- 
zations of  some  communities  in  Idaho,  Washington,  and  other 
western  states  show  the  necessity  of  qualifying  this  statement. 
Among  the  best  known  consolidated  schools  of  this  section  is 
that  at  Twin  Falls,  Idaho.  This  school  is  an  example  of  com- 
plete village  consolidation.  Its  territory  comprises  one  con- 
gressional township  and  six  additional  square  miles.  About 
seven  hundred  children  are  enrolled,  one  hundred  of  whom  are 
in  the  high  school.  The  routes  vary  from  two  to  six  miles, 
and  fifteen  wagons  are  used  for  the  transportation  of  about 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


167 


three  hundred  children.  A  school  farm  of  four  acres  is  main- 
tained, and  every  effort  is  made  to  adapt  the  course  of  study 
to  the  needs  of  the  pupils. 

The  state  of  Washington,  notwithstanding  its  youth,  has 
outstripped  many  of  the  more  conservative  eastern  states,  and 
now  (1912)  practices  consolidation  in  thirty-one  of  its  thirty- 
eight  counties,  showing  in  all  a  record  of   120  consolidated 


Consolidated  School,  Enumclaw,  Washington 

This  school  has  grounds  of  eleven  acres.    Cost  of  building,  $75,000 

districts.  In  King  County,  which  leads  in  the  movement, 
twelve  consolidated  schools  have  been  established.  Of  these 
the  most  pretentious  is  the  consolidated  school  at  Enumclaw. 
The  territory  of  the  Enumclaw  consolidated  district  consists 
of  the  town  of  Enumclaw  and  two  adjoining  country  districts. 
The  grounds  contain  eleven  acres  of  land.  A  modern  three- 
story  brick  building  has  been  erected  and  equipped  at  a  cost 
of  $75,000.  The  first  floor  of  this  building  contains  the  gym- 
nasium, engine  room,  household  science  and  manual  training 
rooms,  and  the  laboratories.  The  second  floor  has  eight  beau- 
tiful classrooms  for  the  grades,  while  the  third  floor  is  devoted 


l68   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

to  the  high  school.  The  large  sum  expended  for  this  build- 
ing and  the  care  with  which  it  has  been  planned  and  con- 
structed give  the  Enumclaw  district  the  distinction  of  sup- 
porting probably  the  most  magnificent  consolidated  school  in 
the  world. 

Consolidation  in  Washington,  however,  because  of  the  vast- 
ness  of  county  units  and  the  consequent  weakness  of  rural 
school  supervision,  is  frequently  undertaken  only  for  purposes 
of  supervision,  and  does  not  always  imply  a  physical  union 
of  isolated  schools  as  understood  elsewhere.  Under  this  plan 
the  various  schools  of  the  consolidated  district  remain  in 
their  original  location  for  the  accommodation  of  the  children 
of  the  lower  grades,  and  an  enlarged  building  is  erected  in  the 
center  of  the  district  for  pupils  of  the  high  school  and  gram- 
mar grades.  A  well-trained  teacher  is  then  employed  to  serve 
in  the  double  capacity  of  high-school  principal  and  super- 
intendent for  the  outlying  districts.  The  majority  of  these 
consolidated  high  schools  or  ''central  schools"  are  located  in 
towns,  and  many,  as  cited  above,  are  of  expensive  and  elabo- 
rate equipment. 

Louisiana  and  the  South.  A  great  wave  of  educational 
progress  is  now  sweeping  over  the  South,  and  a  considerable 
part  of  this  movement  takes  form  through  the  consolidation 
of  country  schools.  Readers  who  think  of  this  section  in  terms 
of  its  former  indifference  will  be  surprised  to  learn  that  there 
are  now  (1912)  over  two  hundred  fifty  consolidated  country 
schools  in  the  state  of  Louisiana  alone,  and  that  Florida  annu- 
ally expends  over  $25,cmdo  for  transportation,  while  Georgia 
and  North  Carolina  have  both  made  surprising  progress  in  this 
line.  "Scarcely  a  week  passes,"  says  State  Superintendent 
J.  Y.  Joyner  of  North  Carolina,  "in  which  the  state  super- 
intendent does  not  receive  invitations  to  speak  to  interested 
communities  on  the  subject  of  consolidation."  Consolidation 
in  the  South  is,  generally  speaking,  much  less  expensive  than 


The  Old  and  the  New  in  Louisiana 


Consolidation  did  it  all.     There  are  now  250  consolidated  schools  in  Louisiana, 
which  ranks  first  among  southern  states  in  this  respect 


I70   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

in  the  states  formerly  quoted,  but  it  is  none  the  less  effective 
and  creditable,  and  nowhere  more  striking  in  its  advantages. 

First  among  southern  states  in  the  matter  of  consolidation 
stands  Louisiana.  Here  the  movement  began  in  1902  and  in 
the  single  year  1910  effected  the  closing  of  over  sixty  schools. 
The  state  superintendent's  report  for  1910  contains  the  follow- 
ing interesting  data  upon  this  subject: 

Total  number  of  consolidated  schools 208 

Number   of  consolidations   effected   in    1910 61 

Number    of    wagons    used 210 

Total    number    of   children   transported 4,088 

Total  average  expenditure  per  month  for  transportation $7,272 

Average  cost  per  month  per  child  transported $2.19 

Average  number  of  children  transported  by  each  wagon  used..  17 

Average  original  cost  of  wagons $136 

Among  the  parishes,  or  counties,  that  lead  in  consolidation 
in  Louisiana  are  Avoyelles,  Calcasieu,  DeSoto,  and  Natchi- 
toches, which  now  have  ten  consolidated  schools  each,  and 
Tangipahoa,  which  has  twelve.  As  an  example  of  these 
schools  may  be  cited  the  Grand  Prairie  School  of  St.  Landry 
parish.  This  school  is  located  in  the  country  ten  miles  from 
any  railway.  "Three  years  ago,"  says  State  Superintendent 
T.  H.  Harris,  *'it  was  taught  in  a  dilapidated  one-room  build- 
ing by  one  teacher.  It  is  now  a  state  approved  high  school 
with  eight  trained  teachers  and  two  hundred  sixty  pupils. 
Consolidation  did  it  all." 

Advantages  of  Consolidation.  The  superiority  of  the 
rural  graded  school  system  is  so  obvious  and  has  been  so 
fully  considered  in  the  preceding  chapter  that  it  need  not  be 
exhaustively  treated  here.  It  is  well,  however,  to  re-state  the 
three  chief,  fundamental  advantages  of  the  consolidated  school 
— advantages  which  are  wholly  impossible  of  attainment  under 
the  present  one-teacher  system. 

I.    The  consolidated  school  is  the  only  known  method  of 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS  171 

providing  a  true  country  school  with  home  high-school  privi- 
leges for  farm  children. 

2.  It  is  the  only  way  of  insuring  an  enrollment  large 
enough  to  provide  the  social  and  cultural  contact  with  com- 
panionable associates  necessary  to  the  best  development  of 
every  child. 

3.  It  is  the  only  method  of  securing  and  holding  trained 
teachers  for  country  schools  and  of  making  possible  a  division 
of  labor  whereby  these  teachers  may  have  sufficient  time  to 
do  good  w^ork  and  choose  the  grades  or  special  subjects  for 
which  they  are  best  fitted. 

A  bulletin  on  The  Consolidation  of  Country  Schools,  issued 
by  the  University  of  Illinois,  at  Urbana,  contains  an  excellent 
detailed  summary  of  the  advantages  of  consolidation.  An 
effective  list  of  general  conclusions  given  in  the  same  source 
will  be  found  of  great  value  in  meeting  the  objections  of 
unbelievers. 

Difficulties  Involved.  The  chief  difficulties  involved  in 
the  consolidation  of  schools  may  be  briefly  summarized  under 
six  headings:  (i)  roads,  (2)  cost,  (3)  undesirable  drivers, 
(4)  inadequate  legislation,  (5)  conservatism  and  prejudice, 
(6)  the  competition  of  other  types  of  schools.  The  first  three 
and  the  last  of  these  points  will  be  discussed  in  following  sec- 
tions. The  remaining  difficulties,  conservatism  and  inade- 
quate legislation,  can  be  overcome  only  through  the  enlighten- 
ment and  education  of  the  general  rural  public  upon  this  ques- 
tion. Hence  the  need  for  state-wide  consolidation  campaigns 
similar  to  those  recently  inaugurated  in  Kansas  and  Indiana. 
Such  agitation  has  a  direct  effect  upon  conservatism,  and 
since  farmers  largely  control  state  legislatures,  shows,  in  the 
end,  an  indirect  bearing  upon  legislation. 

Some  Phases  of  the  Question  of  Transportation.  The 
problem  of  roads  and  transportation  is  the  chief  difficulty  to 
be  overcome  in  most  efforts  toward  consolidation.     It  is  often 


172 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


declared  by  those  who  have  not  made  a  thorough  study  of  con- 
ditions that  ^'transportation  is  an  impossibiHty  with  us."  Per- 
haps it  is,  but  if  so,  the  difficulty  is  probably  in  the  lack  of 
determined  faith  and  will  power  on  the  part  of  the  community 
rather  than  in  the  texture  of  the  mud.  After  all,  the  problem 
merely  resolves  itself  into  the  question  of  whether  mud  shall 
triumph  or  whether  civilization  shall  advance  in  spite  of  the 
mud.  Those  who  fear  the  difficulties  of  transportation  should 
reflect  that  thousands  of  children  are  now  being  hauled  over 
the  mud  roads  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  where  conditions  are 
typical  of  those  in  any  of  our  great  agricultural  sections.  "As 
to  our  roads,"  writes  a  local  resident  of  Ashtabula  County, 
Ohio,  "I  would  say  that  we  probably  have  as  deplorable  clay 
roads  as  any  county  in  the  state.  During  a  part  of  the  year 
they  are  as  bad  as  roads  can  be  and  still  be  roads/' 

Among  the  many  false  impressions  that  prevail  with  farmers 
and  others  relative  to  the  public  transportation  of  school  chil- 
dren are  the  following: 

1.  It  is  argued  that  the  cost  is  exorbitant.  But  such  is  not 
the  case,  as  statistics  prove.  In  Ashtabula  County,  Ohio,  the 
roads  are  not  hard,  and  the  average  daily  cost  of  running 
each  wagon  is  but  $1.64,  while  in  Trumbell  County  it  averages 
only  $1.52.  In  Indiana  the  average  daily  expense  of  each 
wagon  over  the  entire  state  in  1908  was  $2.07  and  in  1910, 
$1.86.  The  wagons  used  are  manufactured  expressly  for  the 
purpose,  at  a  cost  of  from  $80  to  $175,  and  accommodate 
about  twenty  children. 

2.  The  problem  of  procuring  competent  and  reliable  drivers 
is  often  cited  as  an  insurmountable  difficulty.  This  is  largely 
an  imaginary  fear.  Not  laborers,  but  labor,  is  the  present 
world-need,  and  when  the  position  of  hack  driving  is  once 
established  in  a  community  there  are  soon  several  candidates 
from  whom  to  select,  just  as  in  the  case  of  mail  carriers. 
Drivers  in  Indiana  and  Ohio  are  paid   from  $30  to  $45  a 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


173 


month.  They  are  hired  by  contract,  are  required  by  law  to 
be  worthy,  respectable  citizens,  and  are  placed  under  bond 
during  their  terms  of  service  and  made  responsible  for  the  con- 
duct of  the  children  while  in  the  wagon.  Smoking,  profane 
language,  and  other  misconduct  need  not  be  tolerated  any  more 
in  a  driver  than  in  a  teacher.  Dismissal  should  immediately 
follow  such  action. 

3.  Some  imagine  that  the  daily  drive  to  school  will  con- 
sume hours  of  time.  This,  also,  is  wholly  unnecessary.  If 
the  routes  are  too  long, 
more  wagons  may  be  em- 
ployed. The  routes  of  con- 
solidated schools  now  es- 
tablished in  the  United 
States  average  four  miles, 
and  need  seldom  be  longer 
than  six.  In  the  consoli- 
dated school  at  Buffalo 
Center,  Iowa,  where  the 
routes  are  of  usual  length, 
drivers  begin  to  collect  the 
children  from  7:15  a.  m. 
to  8:15  a.  m.,  and  return 
them  to  their  homes  from 
4:45   p.   m.   to   5:45   p 


Consolidated  School  Wagon 

Delphi  Wagon  Works,  Delphi,  Indiana 


m. 


Consolidated  schools  may  close 
early  in  the  afternoon  and  thus  mitigate  this  difficulty  in  part. 
Moreover,  it  should  be  remembered  that  as  things  are  at  pres- 
ent, children  trudging  through  mud  and  snow  frequently  do 
not  get  home  until  dark  in  the  winter  time. 

4.  The  ventilation  and  the  moral  tone  of  the  wagons  are 
often  other  fears.  But  it  should  always  be  remembered  that 
wagons,  schools,  and  anything  else  can  be  rightly  managed 
zvhen  the  people  demand  proper  management.  There  is  no 
reason  whatever  why  a  wagon  should  not  be  properly  ventil- 


174   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

ated,  or  even  heated,  if  desired.  Small  stoves  are  sometimes 
used  for  this  purpose,  though  carriage  heaters  and  lap-robes 
are  usually  sufficient. 

5.  Some  complain  that  children  are  forced  to  wait  at  cross- 
roads or  elsewhere  for  the  wagons  in  stormy  weather.  The 
only  remedy  here  is  to  stop  the  practice  and  run  enough 
wagons  to  collect  the  children  from  their  homes. 

What  the  unthinking,  fearful  farmer  or  observer  cannot  see 
is  that  all  such  conditions  as  those  answered  above  need  not 
be  tolerated.  Transportation  is  therefore  used  as  the  final 
argument  balking  the  whole  movement  for  consolidation.  The 
same  people  cannot  see  the  transportation  now  in  operation  in 
every  state  in  the  Union,  where  farm  boys  and  girls  are  cover- 
ing hundreds  of  miles  daily  in  their  efforts  to  get  high-school 
privileges  from  urban  high  schools.  As  a  last  resort  for  the 
solution  of  the  difficulties  of  transportation,  if  there  is  no 
other  way  at  present,  why  not  consolidate,  conduct  a  good 
school  while  in  session,  and  discontinue  it  during  the  worst 
weather  ? 

But  in  spite  of  all  difficulties,  the  future  of  this  question  of 
transportation  is  full  of  promise.  It  is  now  no  wild  prophecy 
to  herald  the  advent  of  the  day  when  all  main-traveled  roads 
shall  be  hard  roads,  and  when  automobiles  and  electric  cars 
shall  be  the  common  vehicles  of  transportation  for  the  country 
school  children  of  America.  Then  we  shall  have  a  system  of 
transportation  sufficiently  rapid,  convenient,  and  efficient  to 
settle  the  last  vestige  of  doubt  relating  to  the  question  of  con- 
veyance. And  this  day  of  rapid  transportation,  as  set  forth 
in  an  earlier  chapter,  will  bring  not  only  the  solution  of  this 
problem  but  of  many  others  now  engaging  the  serious  atten- 
tion of  farmers. 

The  Cost  of  Consolidated  Schools.  Cost  is  another  argu- 
ment always  advanced  against  consolidation.  Concerning  this 
point    there    is    much    misinformation.      Good    consolidated 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS  175 

schools  will  cost  money — more  money  than  is  now  being 
expended  upon  country  schools.  Let  this  be  distinctly  under- 
stood ;  and  let  there  be  no  hedging  about  it.  Let  there  rather 
be  great  gratitude  that  it  is  so,  for  farmers  are  now  spending 
altogether  too  little  upon  their  scJiools,  as  they  themselves 
know  full  well.  The  truth,  however,  is  that  owing  to  our  poor 
rural  school  system,  much  money  is  wasted  in  spite  of  this 
attempted  economy.  \Mien  cost  is  measured  on  the  per  capita 
basis,  which  is  the  only  accurate  method  of  comparison,  con- 
solidation is  found  to  be  cheaper  than  the  present  system  of 
administration.  Literesting  facts  have  recently  come  to  light 
regarding  this  point,  through  the  exhaustive  study  of  i\Ir. 
George  W.  Knorr,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  (See 
bibliography,  section  6.)  In  schools  having  an  average  daily 
attendance  of  less  than  nine  pupils,  in  Hardin  County,  Iowa, 
it  was  found,  for  example,  that  the  annual  per  capita  cost  for 
each  child  in  1908  was  $40.78.  In  Olmsted  County,  Minne- 
sota, the  cost  per  pupil  in  schools  of  the  same  type  was  $56.50. 
First  grade  country  schools,  that  is,  schools  of  the  highest 
standard,  in  the  same  county  averaged  $32.85  per  pupil  annu- 
ally. In  the  John  Swaney  Consolidated  School  in  Illinois,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  annual  cost  per  pupil  was  but  $27.16,  and 
in  forty-five  typical  consolidated  schools  in  various  states  the 
annual  average  cost  per  pupil  was  $33.83,  a  sum  less  than 
that  of  the  nine-pupil  schools  of  Iowa  and  Minnesota.  From 
this  it  is  evident  that  after  the  initial  expense  of  providing 
new  buildings  has  been  met,  the  consolidated  school  furnishes 
a  much  higher  grade  of  educational  opportunity  to  more 
children,  and  at  less  expense  than  the  one-teacher  school. 

The  matter  of  tuition,  also,  has  some  bearing  upon  this 
question  of  cost.  Xo  leakage  of  the  present  rural  educational 
svstem  is  more  thousrhtlesslv  overlooked  than  this.  Farmers 
annually  pay  out  thousands  of  dollars  in  tuition  to  city  high 
schools  that  might  far  better  be  conserved  at  home  in  a  con- 


176   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

solidated  school.  Strangely  enough,  those  who  expend  the 
most  money  for  this  purpose  are  often  the  first  to  object  to 
the  expense  of  consolidating.  What  they  fail  to  see  is  that 
the  good  consolidated  school,  with  a  complete  high-school 
course,  not  only  keeps  this  money  at  home,  but,  through  the 
attendance  and  tuition  of  non-resident  pupils,  usually  brings 
in  an  additional  sum.  In  the  John  Swaney  Consolidated 
School,  there  are  enough  tuition  pupils  enrolled  to  aggre- 
gate yearly  over  one  thousand  dollars  to  the  school.  More- 
over, a  good  school,  it  must  be  remembered,  adds  to  the  prop- 
erty values  of  a  community,  as  does  a  railroad,  an  electric  car 
line,  or  any  other  improvement.  Still  another  factor  fre- 
quently overlooked  in  weighing  this  matter  of  school  better- 
ment is  the  increased  attraction  of  a  community  possessing 
good  school  privileges  for  the  best  class  of  farmers  and 
renters. 

The  Consolidated  Country  School  Compared  with  Other 
Types  of  Rural  High  Schools.  The  advantages  of  a 
secondary  education  for  country  children,  which  the  consoli- 
dated school  has  been  shown  to  provide  so  admirably,  are  con- 
sidered by  some  to  be  equally  w'ell  afforded  by  the  township 
high  school.  But  the  experience  of  Illinois,  where  schools  of 
this  type  have  been  legalized  since  1872,  and  where  eighty- 
three  are  now  established,  has  not  shown  this  to  be  true.  In 
the  first  place,  the  township  high  school,  being  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  entire  population  of  a  township,  is  almost  invariably 
voted  into  the  largest  city  and  located  in  an  urban  environ- 
ment. The  course  of  study,  therefore,  tends  toward  city 
conditions  and  usually  makes  no  provisions  for  agriculture 
and  other  subject-matter  especially  related  to  farm  life.  Some 
of  the  better  schools  of  this  type  do  provide  such  courses,  it 
is  true,  but  being  thus  removed  from  actual  contact  with  the 
soil,  this  work  is  likely  to  be  more  formal  than  genuine. 
Grant,  however,  that  the  course  of  study  can  be  sufficiently 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


177 


balanced  and  made  to  answer  the  mutual  needs  of  both  city 
and  country  children — which  is  altogether  feasible — and  the 
township  school  still  fails  to  solve  the  problem  of  the  coun- 
try school,  because  it  is  removed  from  the  country.  It  allows 
a  break  between  the  elementary  and  secondary  school  which  is 
always  felt  in  the  undue  proportion  of  those  who  drop  out 
at  this  time.  This  break  can  never  be  comfortably  tolerated  nor 
corrected  so  long  as  rural  high  schools  are  located  in  cities 


Township  High  School,  Princeton,  Illinois 

A  good  type  of  school  for  many  purposes,  but  not  one  affording  an  adequate 

solution  of  the  country  school  problem 

and  large  towns,  several  miles  from  the  farm  homes  that 
support  them.  What  we  need,  and  must  have,  to  solve  the 
problem  of  rural  education,  is  not  an  urban  school  whos^ 
influences  lead  young  people  of  the  farms  directly  away  from 
the  land,  but  a  country  school — a  country  school,  improved, 
modernized,  and  adapted  to  the  needs  of  present  country  life. 
Aside  from  this  grave  charge  of  leading  young  people  away 
from  farm  life,  it  must  be  conceded  also  that  the  township 


178   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

high  school,  providing  only  for  the  older  children  of  advanced 
rank,  is  both  unduly  expensive  and  selfish.  The  money  ex- 
pended in  the  construction  of  a  high-school  building  designed 
to  accommodate  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  rural  school 
population  of  a  township,  may  far  better  be  used  to  build  a 
consolidated  school  which  provides  equal  educational  advan- 
tages for  all  children,  from  the  kindergarten  through  the 
secondary  school. 

Various  other  types  of  schools  have  been  devised  for  solv- 
ing the  problem  of  rural  secondary  education.  In  most 
instances  the  aim  has  been  to  make  these  schools  strongly 
agricultural  in  tendency.  Minnesota  ofifers  special  state  aid 
to  city  high  schools  for  introducing  agriculture  into  their 
courses  of  study.  Such  schools  are  commonly  known  as  agri- 
cultural high  schools,  and  are  considered  by  many  an  adequate 
solution  of  the  problem  of  rural  secondary  education.  The 
truth,  however,  is  that  they  fail  as  grievously  as  the  township 
high  school.  The  schools  chosen  for  this  purpose  must  neces- 
sarily be  city  schools,  for  the  simple  reason  that  in  states 
adopting  this  method  there  are  no  rural  high  schools.  This 
makes  the  work  foreign  to  the  environment  of  the  schools  and 
isolates  it  from  that  fundamental  social  and  economic  contact 
with  actual  farm  life  which  characterizes  the  genuine  coun- 
try school.  Concede,  however,  the  possibility  of  making  such 
schools  pedagogically  right,  and  the  fact  still  remains  that 
they,  too,  are  not  the  home  school  of  the  country  child,  but 
are  remotely  located  in  towns  and  cities  and  cut  off  from  his 
life.  Thus  both  the  township  high  school  and  the  agricultural 
high  school  fail  to  solve  either  the  elementary  or  the  secondary 
phase  of  the  problem  of  rural  education, 

Mississippi  has  adopted  a  system  of  county  agricultural  high 
schools,  providing  one  special  high  school  emphasizing  agri- 
culture, in  each  county.  Such  a  system  may  render  good  serv- 
ice within  its  limitations,  but  obviously  can  never  suffice  as 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


179 


a  system  of  public  education  for  all  country  children,  since  not 
one  farm  child  in  fifty  will  ever  be  affected  by  it.  Georgia 
supports  a  system  of  congressional-district  agricultural  schools 
to  which  the  same  objection  applies  even  more  strongly,  since 
they  are  farther  removed  from  the  homes  of  farm  children  and 
are  also  strongly  vocational  in  character.  In  Wisconsin  and 
Michigan,  county  agricultural  schools  have  lately  been  estab- 
lished. These  are  excellent  schools  of  their  type  and  are  ren- 
dering exceptional  service,  but  they  also  are  too  frankly  voca- 
tional and  too  remote  in  distance  to  furnish  education  adapted 
to  the  varying  ambitions  of  all  farm  children.  Massachusetts, 
and  other  eastern  states,  where  the  problems  of  livelihood 
press  closely  upon  a  congested  population,  are  beginning  to 
establish  vocational  agricultural  schools.  The  most  suggestive 
of  these  is  the  Smith  Agricultural  School,  at  Northampton, 
IMassachusetts.  This  school  constitutes  an  unusual  experi- 
ment station  in  agricultural  education,  but  its  primal  purpose 
of  training  consistently  for  agriculture  as  a  vocation  is  not  to 
be  imitated  in  a  public-school  system  educating  free  American 
children  toward  a  free  choice  of  life  work.  Herein  lies  a  most 
significant  educational  distinction  tempting  to  special  per- 
sonal comment  on  a  vexed  question. 

A  great  demand  is  being  made  today  by  farmers  and  others 
connected  with  country  life  for  instruction  in  agriculture. 
Such  training,  it  is  contended,  will  hold  boys  on  the  farm 
and  make  farmers  of  them.  Personally,  I  am  as  much  inter- 
ested in  the  making  of  farmers  and  in  holding  the  right  kind 
of  farmers  upon  the  land  as  anyone.  But  to  this  argument 
I  take  exception.  Let  us  have  farmers  who  are  farmers  from 
choice,  not  from  force.  As  a  teacher  in  country  schools,  I 
do  not  teach  agriculture  either  to  make  or  unmake  farmers. 
I  teach  it  for  two  simple  reasons :  first,  because  it  is  the  basic 
experience  of  my  young  people,  the  experience  through  whose 
terminology  they  interpret  everything  else;    and  second,  be- 


l8o   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

cause  it  is  a  great  racial  heritage  of  science  and  information 
which  every  child  should  know,  just  as  he  should  know  his- 
tory. If  a  boy  born  on  a  farm  wants  to  be  a  doctor,  very  well 
and  good;  let  him  be  one.  If  his  classmate  desires  to  be  a 
farmer,  very  well,  indeed ;  let  him  be  one — by  all  means.  But 
give  the  two  boys  a  reasonable  elementary  education  expressed 
in  terms  of  their  daily  lives,  and  leave  them  perfectly  free  and 
capable  of  weighing  various  lines  of  work  and  choosing  the 
one  which  most  appeals  to  them.  In  short,  let  us  make  agri- 
culture and  farm-life  experience  the  starting  point  of  ele- 
mentary rural  education,  not  its  ultimate  goal. 

For  the  complete  and  satisfying  solution  of  the  problem  of 
rural  education  and  for  the  general  reconstruction  and  redirec- 
tion of  country  life,  the  consolidated  country  school  is  the  best 
agency  thus  far  devised.  Som.e  of  its  points  of  advantage  for 
this  twofold  purpose  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  It  is  a  democratic  public  school  directly  in  the  hands 
of  the  people  who  support  it. 

2.  It  is  at  the  door  of  farmhouses,  and  is  wholly  available ; 
even  more  available,  when  public  transportation  is  provided, 
than  the  present  one-teacher  school. 

3.  Every  child  in  the  farm  community  is  reached  by  it. 
All  children  attend ;  not  a  favored  few.  This  is  not  true  of 
the  types  of  schools  cited  above. 

4.  It  is  a  school  of  reasonable  cost. 

5.  It  accommodates  and  provides  for  all  grades,  includ- 
ing the  high  school.  It  is  unselfish;  the  township  high  .school 
and  others  proposed,  are  selfish  because  at  best  they  neglect 
the  younger  children. 

6.  It  preserves  a  balanced  course  of  study.  While  edu- 
cating in  terms  of  farm-Hfe  experience,  it  does  not  force  chil- 
dren prematurely  into  any  vocation,  yet  prepares  them  for 
all.  This  is  the  only  legitimate  course  for  a  public  school 
system  designed  to  educate  all  children. 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS  igi 

7.     The  consolidated  country  school,  as  already  shown  in 
the  account  of  the  John  Swaney  School  and  as  will  be  fur- 
ther set  forth  in  concluding  paragraphs,  forms  the  best  social 
and  educational  center  for  the  community  thus  far  developed. 
The  Need  of  a  County  System  of  Districting  for  Con- 
solidation.    Great  waste  occurs  in  the  present  hit-and-miss 
method  through  which  consolidation  is  advancing.    If  consoli- 
dated schools  continue  to  spring  up  here  and  there  like  mush- 
rooms, as  they  have  done  and  are  now  doing,  it  is  apparent 
that  the  final  outcome  will  show  them  poorly  distributed  and 
unsystematized.     There  will  be  instances  where  more  schools 
are  established  in  a  given  section  than  are  really  needed  and 
others  where  isolated  and  unrelated  corners  of  territory  are 
cut  off  and  left  out  of  consideration  altogether.    This,  in  fact, 
is  what  has  already  happened  in  many  cases.     The  splendid 
effort  of  the  John  Swaney  School  illustrates  this  point,  in  that 
the  building  stands  near  the  geographic  center  of  the  township 
and  yet  accommodates  but  three  small  districts.    This  lack  of 
large  planning  is  not  only  unfortunate  in  spacial  relations,  but 
is  unduly  expensive. 

To  ascertain  the  extent  of  this  financial  loss  and  general 
inconvenience,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  recently  asked 
Mr.  George  W.  Knorr  to  make  a  special  investigation  of  the 
consolidated  schools  of  the  United  States.  The  report  of  this 
study  is  now  available  in  a  free  bulletin  entitled  Consolidated 
Rural  School  and  Organisation  of  a  County  System,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  pieces  of  literature  thus  far  printed 
on  consolidation.  To  overcome  the  errors  of  the  present 
unsystematized  method  of  consolidating  schools,  Mr.  Knorr 
advocates  the  organization  of  a  county  system  for  con- 
solidation. Under  this  plan  each  county  of  every  state  where 
consolidation  is  advancing  would  be  carefully  divided  and 
planned  into  various  consolidated  school  districts.  These  dis- 
tricts are  not  to  be  co-extensive  with  townships,  but  are  to  be 


l82        COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

determined  by  more  vital  factors  than  formal  boundary  lines. 
Re-districting  of  this  type  does  not  mean  that  a  whole  county 
is  to  be  consolidated  at  once  or  at  any  one  time.  The  idea  is 
only  to  project  a  harmonized  and  correlated  plan  toward  which 
to  work.  The  objection  that  neighborhoods  w^ll  not  follow 
such  a  plan  is  to  be  overcome  by  a  wise  and  thorough  consider- 
ation of  all  centrifugal  and  centripetal  local  social  tendencies 
before  the  proposed  districts  are  mapped  out. 

Four  chief  factors  are  considered  in  forming  these  county 
systems  of  consolidated  districts,  namely:  (i)  population,  (2) 
land  values  and  tax  unit  areas,  (3)  topography,  and  (4) 
roads.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  insuring  the  right  proportion  or 
control  of  each  of  these  factors,  the  idea  is  productive  of  great 
good.  It  is  further  recommended  by  Mr.  Knorr,  and  by  all 
others  who  adequately  understand  the  problems  of  country 
life  education,  that  the  consolidated  schools  thus  provided  shall 
be  located  in  the  open  country  or  occasionally  in  small  rural 
villages.  When  the  center  of  the  district  falls  near  a  large 
town  or  a  city,  the  location  of  the  consolidated  school  is 
planned  a  few  miles  outside  its  boundaries. 

The  following  map  showing  the  application  of  this  idea  to 
Olmsted  County,  Minnesota,  and  the  accompanying  explana- 
tion are  reproduced  here  from  Mr.  Knorr's  bulletin.  Olm- 
sted County  is  a  typical  Middle  Western  county.  The  gain 
accruing  to  it  from  this  re-districting  would  hold  in  every 
county  where  consolidation  is  at  all  feasible. 

The  most  apparent  general  advantages  of  the  county  sys- 
tem of  districting  for  consolidation  briefly  enumerated  are : 

1.  It  prevents  waste  from  overlapping  and  neglect  from 
overlooking. 

2.  It  equalizes  burdens  of  cost  and  taxation,  and  insures 
the  adequate  financial  support  of  each  school  established. 

3.  It  prevents  the  establishment  of  small,  inferior  con- 
solidated schools. 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


183 


4.  It  assists  in  determining  the  best  and  most  economical 
transportation  routes  and  favors  the  best  control  of  topo- 
graphical conditions. 


Map  of  Olmsted  County,  Minnesota,  Showing  Proposed  Consolidated 

Districts 

The  heavy  lines  are  the  boundaries  of  the  proposed  consolidated 
districts.  The  light  lines  are  township  lines.  The  location  of  the 
proposed  consolidated  school  buildings  is  shown  by  the  conventional 
symbol,  and  to  assist  in  comparisons  the  locations  of  the  present  dis- 
trict, graded,  and  high  schools  are  also  indicated.  The  numbers  before 
"G."  and  "H.  S."  denote  probable  enrollment  in  grades  and  high 
school,  respectively,  in  the  proposed  consolidated  schools. 

Under  this  project,  the  present  142  graded  and  district  schools  would 
be  replaced  by  21  strong,  well-attended  consolidated  schools.  It  will 
be  noted  that  for  Districts  XII  and  XX,  Rochester  and  Stewartsville, 
respectivel}-,  consolidated  schools  at  a  distance  from  town  are  sug- 
gested for  the  rural  pupils.  With  the  exception  of  these  two  schools 
all  others  in  the  county  are  replaced  by  consolidated  schools.  The 
Roman  numerals  aoolv  to  the  number  of  the  orooosed  districts. 


l84        COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

5.  It  equalizes  population  to  a  large  degree  and  prevents 
the  injury  of  the  schools  established  by  any  temporary  shift- 
ing of  the  population. 

6.  It  overcomes  the  petty  jealousies  fostered  by  adhering 
to  small  district  boundary  lines,  and  makes  it  easier  to  dissolve 
small  districts  in  states  where  the  one-room  school  district  still 
obtains. 

7.  It  avoids  contention  and  strife  over  the  question  of 
locating  the  new  school. 

8.  It  defines  the  boundaries  of  country  communities  and 
fosters  the  growth  of  community  feeling. 

9.  It  furthers  the  progress  of  consolidation  and  hastens  the 
establishment  of  complete  consolidated  country  schools  which 
shall  become  great  country  life  institutions  serving  as  con- 
structive forces  and  social  centers  for  the  communities  they 
define. 

In  view  of  these  and  other  advantages  of  the  county  system 
of  districting  for  consolidation,  it  is  greatly  to  be  hoped 
that  many  states  will  soon  pass  legislation  furthering  its  prac- 
tice. This  has  already  been  done  in  Minnesota,  where  an 
optional  law  for  this  purpose  is  now  in  force. 

The  Consolidated  School  as  a  Community  Center,  and 
in  the  Future  Development  of  Country  Life.  The  great 
adaptability  of  the  good  consolidated  country  school  for  com- 
munity service  and  rural  life  regeneration  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized.  Wherever  it  has  been  established,  in 
practically  every  instance  of  the  two  thousand  cases  now  on 
record,  this  attribute  has  been  illustrated.  One  of  our  greatest 
country  life  leaders  has  expressed  a  fear  that  the  consolidated 
school  will  break  down  community  feeling  through  the  re- 
moval of  local  district  schools.  But  this  is  exactly  what  it 
does  not  do.  The  consolidated  school  builds  up  the  country 
community  as  no  other  institution  of  rural  life  has  yet  done. 
It  even  defines  community  boundaries  and  establishes  a  com- 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 


185 


munity  sense  where  none  has  existed  before.  It  overcomes 
petty  jealousies,  swallows  small  differences,  and  enlarges  and 
intensifies  the  community  idea  into  something  significant  and 
tangible.  It  brings  neighbors  on  opposite  sides  of  the  hill 
together,  introduces  those  who  live  on  different  roads,  forces 
the  civil  meeting  of  families  that  "haven't  spoken  since  the 
war,"  and  in  every  way  furthers  the  progress  of  the  brother- 
hood of  man  among  farmers. 


School  Garden,  John  Swaney  School 

The  country  school  of  the  future  will  have  gardens,  hills,  fields,  and  orchards, 
where  work  is  done  with  both  hands  and  head 


All  this  the  consolidated  school  accomplishes  through  its 
marvelous  possibilities  for  every  form  of  education  and  en- 
lightenment. Not  children  only,  but  adults  as  wtW,  are  reached 
by  it.  Its  future  development  in  the  days  of  hard  roads,  elec- 
tric car  lines  and  automobiles  can  scarcely  be  appreciated  at 
the  present  time.  Six  million  country  children,  it  is  esti- 
mated, will  eventually  come  under  its  influence.  But  though 
good  today,  the  consolidated  school  of  the  future,  which  shall 
arise  to  meet  the  needs  of  these  children,  will  be  better'  still. 


l86   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


In  the  first  place,  it  will  have  worked  out  its  salvation  in 
terms  of  the  life  about  it  and  will  be  neither  an  ungraded 
group,  like  many  of  the  one-teacher  schools  of  the  present,  nor 
a  lock-step  machine  like  the  average  city  school.  It  will  be 
beautifully  housed  and  charmingly  located  in  the  very  heart  of 
God's  out-of-doors.  Its  music  will  be  the  song  of  birds,  the 
murmur  of  trees,  and  the  laughter  and  shout  of  happy  child- 
hood. It  will  have  gar- 
dens, hills,  fields,  and  or- 
chards, where  work  is 
done  with  both  hands  and 
head.  It  will  be  a  center 
of  community  pride  and 
efifort  for  those  beyond 
school  as  well  as  for  chil- 
dren. To  it  will  turn  the 
old  man  and  the  kinder- 
garten child.  Tired  moth-* 
ers  will  visit  it  and  learn 
how  to  prevent  their  wear- 
iness. Discouraged  farm- 
ers will  call  upon  it  and 
absorb  the  courage  of  its 
new  science.  Young  peo- 
ple will  come  to  it  because 
it  reflects  life's  best  in- 
spiration and  hope.  Its 
instruction  will  be  given 
in  terms  of  daily  living  and  present  activity.  Life  will  be  its 
text  and  hozv  to  live  it  fully,  deeply,  and  richly  will  be  its  theme. 
The  spirit  of  this  instruction  will  go  out  through  all  the  country- 
side and  find  expression  in  better  homes,  redirected  churches, 
strong,  true-principled  farm  organizations,  hard  roads,  and 
greater  crop  yields;  in  "better  business,  better  farming,  better 


On  the  Campus,  John  Swaney 
School 


CONSOLIDATED  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS  187 

living,"  and  in  a  happier  people  and  a  more  satisfying  country 
life. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  of  the  consolidated  school. 
Much  still  remains  to  be  said  before  the  general  public  will 
awaken  to  its  possibilities.  In  conclusion,  let  it  be  repeated 
that  the  consolidated  country  school  in  its  complete  and  fully 
adapted  form  is  the  best  solution  of  the  country  school  prob- 
lem yet  devised.  Personally,  I  do  not  wish  to  dogmatize  upon 
any  phase  of  country  life,  or  anything  else,  but  upon  this 
point  I  stand  firm.  Years  of  struggle  as  a  country  teacher 
have  thoroughly  convinced  me  of  this  truth,  and  I  challenge 
anyone,  be  he  farmer  or  educator,  to  assume  the  full  responsi- 
bilities of  a  country  school  without  becoming  persuaded.  The 
country  teacher  of  today  has  a  great  mission  to  discharge  in 
converting  farmers  to  this  view  and  in  furthering  the  prog- 
ress of  the  consolidation  movement.  This  responsibility  is 
considered  at  some  length  in  Chapter  X  and  is  too  self- 
evident  to  need  further  argument.  With  all  its  weaknesses 
the  country  school,  even  as  it  is  today,  stands  preeminent  as 
an  influence  for  rural  community  improvement.  It  is  the 
door  through  which  all  forms  of  advancement  may  most 
quickly  enter.  To  contribute  a  share  in  this  field  of  progress 
bv  enlightening  others  and  revealing  the  necessity  of  an 
improved  consolidated  school  system  is  therefore  incumbent 
upon  every  country  teacher. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   LEADERSHIP   OF   THE   COUNTRY   TEACHER 

This  book  has  thus  far  been  devoted  largely  to  pointing 
out  the  possibilities  of  country  life.  The  cooperative  country 
community,  attractive  home,  spiritualized  church,  active  farm 
organization,  and  redirected  school  are  all  largely  ideals,  how- 
ever, and  are  still  pretty  much  in  the  realm  of  the  future.  It 
will  therefore  be  the  purpose  throughout  the  remainder  of  this 
discussion  to  show  how  these  ideals  may  be  realized.  In  this 
attempt  the  doctrine  of  the  leadership  of  the  country  teacher  is 
advanced. 

Scarcity  of  Rural  Leaders  and  Its  Effect.  Before  en- 
larging upon  this  general  thesis  let  us  first  pick  up  a  thread 
from  Chapter  I  where  it  was  stated  that  a  chief  character- 
istic of  country  life  is  its  isolation,  or  openness,  and  that  one 
of  the  effects  of  this  openness  is  a  scarcity  of  leaders.  In  this 
respect  the  rural  community  is  essentially  different  from  the 
town  or  city.  The  city  is  composed  of  men  and  women  of  all 
professions  and  occupations.  This  affords  many  leaders  of 
diverse  and  varying  points  of  view.  There  are  lawyers, 
teachers,  business  men,  ministers,  and  editors,  all  eager  and 
capable  of  leadership  and  able  to  render  good  public  service 
of  this  kind.  The  country  community,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
composed  almost  entirely  of  people  of  one  pursuit.  This  nat- 
urally develops  a  common  point  of  view  and  causes  farmers 
to  fail  to  appreciate  many  opportunities  not  directly  related 
to  their  own  line  of  work  and  thought. 

Most  of  the  slow  growth  and  retardation  of  country  life 

188 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER    189 

can  be  traced  to  this  want  of  good  active  leaders.  It  is  not 
because  farmers  are  intellectually  inferior  in  any  sense  or 
even  because  desire  is  lacking  that  progressive  movements 
mature  so  slowly  in  the  country.  Country  people  often  neglect 
to  begin  a  measure  that  they  well  know  will  add  to  the  con- 
venience and  welfare  of  their  lives.  The  consolidation  of 
schools  is  a  typical  instance.  Many  communities  appreciate 
the  advantage  of  such  a  change  but  fail  to  act  simply  be- 
cause there  is  "nobody  to  start  it."  One  of  the  worst  fea- 
tures of  the  local  jealousy  so  often  found  in  a  farm  neigh- 
borhood lies  in  the  fact  that  capable  men  who  might  develop 
the  power  of  good  leadership  refrain  from  action  through 
fear  of  incurrring  the  displeasure  of  pubHc  opinion. 

Opportunity  and  Advantages  of  the  Country  Teacher 
for  Community  Leadership.  Right  here  lies  the  country 
teacher's  opportunity.  For,  in  the  first  place,  the  position  of 
the  teacher  as  a  director  of  children  requires  that  she  be  at 
least  something  of  a  leader;  the  more  developed  her  powers 
of  leadership,  the  greater  her  influence  both  within  and  without 
the  schoolroom.  Moreover,  people  turn  to  the  school  as  a  cen- 
ter of  authority,  and  look  to  the  teacher,  without  jealousy 
or  criticism,  as  one  who  has  the  right  to  lead.  She  is  in 
close  and  varied  contact  with  them  and  on  the  same  level.  She 
also  embodies  a  new  point  of  view  with  often  a  larger  per- 
spective than  any  one  else,  and  is  sensitive  to  community  needs 
and  conditions.  Furthermore,  the  teacher  is  the  director  of 
the  one  community  institution  in  the  neighborhood,  the  only 
all-inclusive  community  institution  society  affords,  and  in  many 
instances  in  the  open  country,  where  granges,  farmers'  clubs, 
and  even  churches  are  sometimes  wanting,  the  only  social- 
service  institution  of  any  kind.  She  is  also  the  guardian  of 
the  educational  interests  of  the  community  and  may  easily 
enlarge  her  office  to  include  adult  instruction  and  thus  intro- 
duce ideas  of  progress  relating  to  all  phases  of  farm  living, 


190   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

social,  economic,  and  scientific.  The  fact  that  she  usually 
comes  from  outside  the  neighborhood  and  has  no  pecuniary 
interests  to  promote  also  adds  to  her  power.  To  these  advan- 
tages may  be  added  the  further  argument  that  country  teachers 
of  all  rural  social  workers  are  most  easily  trained  for  leader- 
ship. This  is  true  because  as  a  group  they  already  possess 
the  proper  attitude  and  are  at  present  better  able  than  others 
to  obtain  special  training  for  rural  leadership. 

Requirements  for  Leadership  on  the  Part  of  Country 
Teachers.  Hence  no  one  person,  or  group  of  persons,  can 
control  the  local  rural  situation  and  guide  the  trend  of  thought 
as  can  the  country  teacher,  if  she  is  adequately  prepared  and 
knows  how  to  attack  her  problem.  Her  influence  can  be  more 
direct  and  effective  than  that  of  any  distant  agricultural  col- 
lege, experiment  station,  or  commission.  Ability  to  so  cope 
with  conditions,  of  necessity  demands  that  she  be  either 
trained  or  self-educated  to  understand  and  appreciate  the 
larger  social  movements  underlying  rural  progress.  She  must 
realize  the  power  of  her  own  position,  the  influence  of  the 
school  for  which  she  is  responsible,  and  the  place  of  the  home, 
the  church,  roads,  farm  organizations,  and  various  rural 
agencies  in  bringing  about  a  fuller  and  richer  country  life. 
She  must  understand  and  be  interested  in  the  problems  of 
the  farm,  especially  in  the  ultimate  farm  problem  as  set  forth 
in  the  first  chapter  of  this  discussion,  must  realize  the  neces- 
sity of  its  proper  solution,  and  appreciate  something  of  its 
broad  significance  in  the  permanent  and  national  welfare. 

To  this  understanding  of  farmers  and  farm  conditions  the 
country  teacher  who  aspires  to  leadership  must  add  a  definite 
ideal  of  the  possibilities  and  satisfaction  of  country  com- 
munity life.  She  must  hold  a  clear  vision  of  what  the  local 
neighborhood,  with  all  its  limitations,  may  become.  Having 
thus  established  a  goal,  she  must  then  be  able  to  imbue 
others  with  this  idealism  and  enlist  their  cooperation  toward 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER 


191 


its  realization.  This  means  that  she  must  formulate  a  pro- 
gram of  work  for  community  building,  employing  all  the  latent 
talent  of  the  neighborhood,  and  that  she  must  have  some 
idea  of  how  to  execute  this  program.  In  this  idea  of  execu- 
tion she  must  understand  true  leadership,  not  as  aggressive- 
ness, but  as  a  matter  of  suggestion  and  persuasion.  She  must 
realize  that  the  best  leader,  like  the  best  teacher,  is  the  indi- 
vidual who  develops  the  highest  initiative  and  self-reliance  in 


A  Country  School  Prepared  for  Community  Leadership 


his  followers,  and  most  quickly  makes  his  own  direction  un- 
necessary. This  implies  in  turn  that  the  teacher  shall  know 
something  of  the  larger  movements  of  recent  rural  progress 
and  of  the  function  and  development  of  other  rural  social 
institutions.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  chapters  relating  to 
the  farm  home,  the  Grange,  the  country  church,  and  the 
farmers'  institute  are  included  in  this  book,  which  has  been 
written  chiefly  to  assist  country  teachers  toward  this  office 
of  local  leadership. 


192 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


Knowing  all  this,  it  then  becomes  the  function  of  the  coun- 
try teacher  to  enlighten  others.  Her  problem  is  that  of  ac- 
cepting conditions  as  they  now  exist,  of  assuming  control  of 
a  weak,  neglected,  and  socially  deficient  school,  and  of  bring- 
ing the  children  under  her  charge,  and  others  of  the  com- 
munity, to  appreciate  the  beauty  and  richness  possible  to 
country  life.  She  thus  becomes  a  leader  of  the  people,  the 
connecting  link  between  them  and  their  opportunities.  Such 
a  view  dignifies  and  elevates  rural  teaching  not  only  to  the 
country  teacher  herself,  but  to  all  others,  and  when  generally 
accepted  will  remove  the  bar  sinister  still  too  frequently  laid 
upon  this  phase  of  the  pedagogical  profession. 

True  Leadership  Explained.  By  this  leadership  of  the 
country  teacher  I  do  not  mean  something  exalted,  indefinite, 
and  impossible.  I  mean  only  an  increase  and  expansion  of 
the  good  work  now  going  on  in  scores  of  communities  at  the 
present  time.  I  mean  a  movement  quiet,  humble,  unassum- 
ing, and  of  small  beginnings.  I  mean  a  leadership  that  first 
occupies  itself  with  its  legitimate  task  of  teaching  a  good 
school,  for  no  teacher  can  gain  or  hold  the  confidence  of  any 
community  who  is  not  first  of  all  a  good  teacher.  I  mean  a 
leadership,  as  I  have  tried  to  indicate  throughout,  that  begins 
by  leading  dirt,  double  desks,  and  unsightly  stoves  out  of 
the  schoolroom  and  by  leading  soap  and  water,  ventilation, 
and  better  teaching  into  it.  I  mean  also  a  type  of  leadership 
that  learns  from  others,  is  never  unwilling  to  take  the  smallest 
suggestion  from  the  simplest  soul,  and  that  leads  for  the 
service  and  comfort  it  may  give  rather  than  for  commenda- 
tion before  the  eyes  of  men.  Such  leadership  zvill  he  what 
has  been  termed  true  leadership  because  it  will  be  a  work  of 
quiet,  social  direction,  zvhich  sincerely  seeks  to  stinndate  and 
develop  the  ability  of  others  rather  than  to  exploit  its  ozvn 
good  parts. 

At  this  point  I  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER 


193 


criticism  sometimes  directed  against  this  doctrine  of  country- 
teacher  leadership  is  due  chiefly  to  a  wrong  idea  of  leadership. 

Difficulties  of  Country  Teaching.  It  will  be  argued  by 
many  that  country  teachers  are  incapable  of  such  leadership, 
however  humble,  and  that  the  case  is  hopeless,  just  because 
those  available  for  the  rural  teaching  force  are  so  un- 
trained and  short-sighted. 
It  is  undoubtedlv  true  that 
few  teachers^  either  rural 
or  urban,  fully  appreciate 
the  possibilities  of  their 
position.  It  is  also  true 
that  country  teachers  are 
especially  deficient  in  this 
ability.  But  at  the  same 
time  it  may  be  asked  if 
these  inexperienced  young 
teachers  are  wiselv  di- 
rected,  or  ever  taught  to 
see  the  larger  relation- 
ships and  meaning  of 
country  life.  Here  per- 
haps   is    a    query    which 

county  superintendents,  institute  instructors,  and  normal  school 
faculties  may  well  ponder. 

Before  censuring  country  teachers,  the  critic  should  con- 
sider the  vast  difficulty  of  their  position  and  undertaking.  The 
very  limitations  of  the  system  under  which  they  are  forced 
to  work,  as  shown  in  Chapter  VII,  are  so  numerous  that  an 
efficient  degree  of  success  is  practically  unattainable.  The 
hard  physical  conditions,  long  muddy  walks,  cold  lunches, 
heavy  janitor  work,  poor  ventilation,  and  other  unsanitary  con- 
ditions, are  in  themselves  enough  to  tax  the  strength  of  any 
individual,  to  say  nothing  of  the  nervous  strain  and   worry 


When  First  We  Go  to  School 


194   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

occasioned  in  the  management  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  daily 
recitations  and  the  general  direction  of  an  ungraded  school. 
There  is  almost  no  virtue  or  ability  not  listed  in  the  category 
of  a  good  country  teacher's  accomplishments.  She  must  pos- 
sess a  fair  degree  of  all-round  scholarship;  be  something  of 
an  artist,  carpenter,  cook,  musician,  and  gardener;  know  just 
what  ails  a  smoky  stove,  a  rattling  window,  or  a  dull  boy ;  be 
able  to  bandage  wounds,  pull  teeth,  start  fires,  drive  a  frac- 
tious horse,  conduct  a  Sunday  school,  or  fish  lost  boots  from 
the  muddy  depths  of  the  public  highway.  And  all  this  for 
the  royal  sum  of  forty  or  fifty  dollars  a  month ! 

Professional  isolation  is  another  matter  to  be  reckoned 
among  the  country  teacher's  troubles,  and  one  more  influen- 
tial and  serious  than  first  thought  may  suggest.  The  loneli- 
ness of  meeting  only  the  immature  minds  and  interests  of 
childhood,  day  after  day,  and  of  having  no  avenue  of  inti- 
mate adult  discussion  and  professional  inspiration  shows  in 
the  great  hunger  of  country  teachers  for  pedagogical  assist- 
ance and  social  diversion.  But  perhaps  the  most  disheartening 
feature  of  rural  school  work,  the  factor  worse  than  mud,  iso- 
lation, low  salaries,  and  smoky  stoves,  is  the  common  attitude 
of  other  teachers  toward  this  phase  of  teaching.  In  this 
connection  it  is  consoling  to  reflect  that  when  the  full  signifi- 
cance of  rural  prosperity  is  better  understood,  and  the  sterling 
spirit  of  the  earnest  country  teacher  more  fully  appreciated, 
this  unhappy  condition  must  soon  disappear. 

The  point  to  be  emphasized  in  this  discussion  of  the  country 
teacher  and  her  place,  however,  is  that  she  may,  and  should, 
become  a  local  leader.  If  the  school  is  to  function  as  the 
temporary  institutional  leader  of  the  country  community  the 
teacher  must  necessarily  assume  this  responsibility  of  local 
leadership.  Her  position  as  one  controlling  education  makes 
it  possible  for  her  to  do  this  effectively.     It  thus  becomes  her 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER 


195 


privilege  to  serve  as  a  medium  between  the  people  of  the 
community  and  their  opportunities,  her  immediate  function 
being  to  study  the  prob- 
lematic social  situations 
of  farm  life,  and  to  bring 
enlightenment  to  others. 
This  makes  the  country 
teacher  zi'ho  appreciates 
and  realises  her  advan- 
tage the  chief  iin mediate 
factor  in  the  solution  of 
the  farm  problem. 

Tribute  to  Country 
Teachers.  At  this  point 
I  wish  to  pay  deserved 
tribute  to  country  teach- 
ers everywhere,  and  espe- 
cially to  express  a  few 
words  of  gratitude  to 
those  with  whom  I  have  worked,  and  whose  loyalty  and  effort 
are  making  possible  the  partial  realization  of  new  hopes  for 
country  schools  and  country  life.  It  is  true,  as  frequently  main- 
tained, that  country  teachers  are  young  and  inexperienced  and 
poorly  prepared  for  their  work.  But  it  is  also  true  that  as  a 
group  they  are  filled  with  a  great  sincerity.  In  the  recent  rural 
regeneration  their  problems  are  more  vital  and  of  larger  pro- 
portion than  ever  before.  But,  like  country  children,  they 
have  had  unfair  treatment  educationally,  especially  from  our 
state  normal  schools.  With  proper  sympathy  and  understand- 
ing and  direction,  a  new  spirit  descends  upon  country  teachers, 
notwithstanding  their  youth  and  lack  of  training,  and  through 
this  spirit  they  accomplish  great  things.  The  vision  has  been 
the  thing  lacking,  the  vision  of  the  possibilities  of  the  country 


Procuring  the  Necessary  Kindling 


196   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

school  and  of  how  to  realize  these  possibilities.  It  thus  be- 
comes the  duty  of  the  state,  through  its  normal  schools,  to 
uphold  this  vision  to  the  end  that  it  may  itself  have  life 
more  abundantly. 

Examples  of  Country  Teacher  Leadership.  As  a  worker 
with  country  teachers,  and  for  them,  I  have  proved  to  my  own 
satisfaction  that  when  these  possibilities  are  revealed  in  a 
constructive  way,  results  are  forthcoming  in  spite  of  nu- 
merous handicaps.  For  the  benefit  and  conviction  of  those 
who  are  not  quite  willing  to  concede  their  faith  so  wholly,  I  am 
inserting  here  some  extracts  from  the  personal  narratives  of 
teachers  whose  stories  I  have  requested  for  this  purpose.  The 
first  of  these  is  the  record  of  a  girl  who  has  had  no 
educational  advantages  beyond  the  eighth  grade  except  frag- 
ments of  two  summer  terms  in  a  state  normal  school.  This 
girl  writes  educational  and  country  life  articles  for  the  local 
papers,  participates  in  the  programs  of  farmers'  institutes,  does 
what  she  can  for  church  improvement,  and  in  every  possible 
way  seeks  to  upbuild  the  country  community  in  which  she 
works.  Moreover,  so  great  is  her  vision  of  the  possibilities  of 
country  life  that  she  prefers  country  teaching  to  all  other. 
The  second  story  is  that  of  a  girl  who  confronted  the  hardest 
of  all  rural  problems,  a  backward  sectarian  neighborhood. 
These  people  formerly  insisted  upon  clinging  to  all  their  old 
ways.  This  teacher  of  leadership  and  vision  has  been  among 
them  two  years,  and  they  now  see  things  differently.  Neither 
of  these  girls  has  wished  her  identity  revealed  but  they  are 
both  real  country  teachers  and  their  stories  are  true. 

How  Miss  Mary  Improved  Her  Country  School 

During  the  year  1909-10  many  strange  stories  were  afloat  concern- 
ing the  condition  of  affairs  in  a  certain  district  known  as  Cedar  Oak, 
For  two  years  or  more  the  school  had  been  run  with  a  loose  hand. 
About  this  time  Miss  Mary  decided  to  apply  for  the  school.  As  she 
came  fairly  well  recommended,  the  directors  hired  her  for  nine  months 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER    197 

at   forty-five   dollars    per   month.     Miss    Mary   had   taken   a   course    in 
country  school  economy  and   felt  that  here  was   a  chance  to  put  into 
practice  some  of  the  ideas  thus  received. 
During  several  visits  to  the  school  and  community  she  found  things 


Cedar  Oak  School,  the  Scene  of  Miss  Mary's  Endeavors 

fully  as  bad  as  they  had  been  pictured  to  her.  The  building  itself 
showed  decided  neglect.  The  walls  that  once  were  white  were  covered 
with  dirt  and  grime.  Shelves  and  desks  were  dirty  and  disfigured  by 
penciled  pictures  and  knife  cuts.  One  door  was  nearly  kicked  to  pieces. 
The  yard  was  rough  and  uneven.  The  stove-wood  was  scattered  about 
the  yard  and  the  outbuildings  faced  each  other.  Truly  there  was  work 
to  be  done. 

For  several  weeks  she  busied  herself  with  preparations  for  the  coming 
term.  Finding  no  record  whatever  of  the  classification  of  the  pupils, 
she  procured  the  daily  register,  learned  the  names  and  ages  of  the 
children,  and  grouped  them  into  classes  according  to  their  ages.  Much 
of  this,  of  course,  had  to  be  changed,  but  for  the  time  it  served  the  pur- 
pose. Besides  this  she  prepared  her  material  for  seat  work  and  supple- 
mentary lessons.  Bulletins,  pictures,  and  pamphlets  were  also  arranged 
and  classified. 

Three  days  before  school  began  she  moved  into  her  new  home.    Here 


iq8     country  life  and  the  country  school 

she  found  that  others  besides  herself  had  been  busy.  The  grass  had 
been  mowed,  the  yard  cleaned,  and  several  wagon  loads  of  dirt  hauled 
and  used  to  level  the  ground  in  front  of  the  building.  A  coal  shed  had 
been  built  somewhat  to  the  side  and  rear  of  the  schoolhouse  and  all  of 
the  wood  stacked  inside.  A  long  platform  extended  across  the  front  of 
the  building,  which  greatly  improved  its  appearance.  The  outbuildings 
had  been  moved  farther  apart  and  turned  to  face  in  opposite  directions. 
Later  in  the  year  the  yard  was  again  cleaned,  and  ferns,  bushes,  and 
flowers  were  planted.  There  were  twenty-four  giant  oak  trees  on  this 
ground;  so  there  was  no  need  of  placing  others  there.  With  a  little 
tact  and  patience  Miss  Mary  and  her  pupils  finally  made  it  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  lawns  in  the  county. 

The  interior  of  the  building  was  by  no  means  neglected.  At  the 
teacher's  suggestion  the  walls  had  been  papered,  the  woodwork  painted, 
the  wainscoting  varnished,  the  floor  scrubbed  and  windows  washed. 
Then  Miss  ]\Iary  herself  took  a  brush  in  hand  and  varnished  every  seat 
and  desk  as  well  as  the  organ,  book  cases,  chairs,  and  map  cases. 

After  these  matters  of  cleanliness  and  repair  had  been  attended  to, 
those  of  lighting  and  ventilation  were  taken  up.  The  seats  which  had 
previously  faced  three  uncurtained  south  windows  were  arranged  in 
rows,  according  to  size,  and  turned  to  face  the  north.  Then  she  ordered 
six  dark  paper  window  shades,  which  she  placed  twelve  inches  below 
the  top  of  the  frame,  thereby  forming  a  narrow  transom  above  each 
shade. 

As  winter  approached  the  heating  system  required  attention.  When 
Miss  Mary  rearranged  the  seats,  she  forgot  to  leave  a  place  for 
the  stove;  consequently  another  arrangement  had  to  be  made.  Some 
one  had  read  that  the  Waterbury  jacketed  stove  was  a  very  good  thing 
for  a  one-room  country  school;  so  the  directors  began  to  inquire  about 
it.  By  Thanksgiving  day  the  new  furnace  was  in  its  place  in  the  north- 
w^est  corner  of  the  room.  The  new  system  provided  a  constant  supply 
of  fresh  air  as  well  as  a  means  of  removing  the  foul  air  and  was  much 
superior  to  the  old  way. 

After  satisfactorily  disposing  of  these  questions  of  physical  comfort 
and  convenience,  the  decoration  of  the  room  was  next  in  order.  Miss 
Mary  placed  a  few  well-chosen  but  inexpensive  Perry  pictures  upon 
the  walls,  dainty  white  curtains  at  the  windows,  rugs  of  Napier  matting 
upon  the  floor,  and  transoms,  or  "stained-glass  windows,"  of  card 
board  and  colored  tissue  paper  over  doors  and  windows.  During  the 
year  several  articles  were  added  to  the  school  equipment,  among  which 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER    199 

were  kindergarten  chairs,  a  sand-table,  a  window  seat,  window  shades, 
a  stove,  some  matting,  and  sixty  square  feet  of  slated  blackboard  cloth. 
So  much  for  the  problem  of  physical  environment. 

Now  ]\Iiss  Mary  also  believed  that  the  teacher  should  be  a  promi- 
nent factor  in  the  social  life  of  the  community  and  that  the  school 
should  be  a  center  of  community  interests.  Therefore  her  plans  for 
community  building  included  parents'  and  pupils'  organizations,  enter- 
tainments, and  social  gatherings.  For  these  reasons  she  organized  a 
mothers'  club  and  instituted  regular  directors'  meetings.  Both  had  for 
their  purposes  the  mutual  benefit  and  encouragement  of  teacher  and 
patrons.  The  mothers'  club  met  one  afternoon  of  each  month  and 
discussed  educational  topics,  articles  from  school  magazines,  sometimes 
introducing  material  relating  to  the  home  or  home-making,  and  again 
discussing  the  care  of  poultry  or  gardens. 

Once  a  month  the  directors  held  their  regular  meeting  in  the  school 
house,  examined  the  records,  condition  of  building  and  furnishings, 
and  wrote  the  necessary  school  money  order.  Several  times  Miss  ]\Iary 
succeeded  in  getting  them  to  spend  half  a  day  in  the  schoolroom  while 
the  classes  were  in  session.  In  this  way  she  secured  their  heartiest 
good  will  and  cooperation. 

Afternoon  and  evening  entertainments  formed  another  phase  of  Miss 
Mary's  country  community  building.  The  first  social  event  of  the  term 
was  the  patrons'  picnic,  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  school  year,  for 
the  purpose  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the  parents  and  establishing 
friendly  relations  between  the  home  and  school.  This  affair  was  well 
attended  and  proved  successful.  A  basket  dinner  was  served,  and  two 
addresses  were  delivered.  The  first  speaker  was  a  United  Presbyterian 
minister  and  the  second  was  the  county  superintendent. 

Another  afifair  of  importance  was  the  country  school  exhibit  held  in 
November.  Miss  ]\Iary  invited  the  cooperation  of  two  other  teachers 
in  preparing  this  exhibition.  A  speaker  from  the  Western  Illinois  State 
Normal  School  was  engaged  to  address  the  audience. 

After  this  came  the  Christmas  and  spring  entertainments  and  follow- 
ing them  one  of  the  most  important  occasions  of  the  entire  term,  the 
field  day  contests  between  Miss  Mary's  and  an  adjoining  district  school. 
The  program  indoors  consisted  of  contests  in  singing,  speaking,  reading, 
and  story-telling,  while  the  field  sports  were  contests  in  running,  jump- 
ing, pole  vaulting,  discus  throwing,  and  bicycle  riding.  There  were 
other  social  events  during  the  term  which,  though  of  minor  importance, 
had  each  a  place  in  Miss  Mary's  plan  for  community  building. 


200   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Something  mus|  now  be  said  in  regard  to  the  educational  progress 
during  Miss  Mary's  brief  stay.  On  one  occasion  a  number  of  the  older 
students  with  their  teacher  drove  a  distance  of  six  miles  to  attend  an 
evening  session  of  the  farmers'  institute  in  a  nearby  town.  Another 
time  they  visited  the  county  superintendent's  office  and  examined  speci- 
mens of  school  work  from  the  various  schools  of  the  county.  A  third 
excursion  was  that  to  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School. 
School  was  closed  for  a  day  while  Miss  IMary  and  seven  of  her  pupils 
visited  the  normal  school.  To  the  children  this  educational  excursion 
meant  a  revelation  of  wonders.  The  great  school,  with  its  splendid 
equipment  and  beautiful  classrooms,  will  not  soon  fade  from  their  ^ 
memory. 

Miss  ]\Iary  introduced  manual  training  into  her  school,  and  her  class 
of  boys,  working  once  or  twice  a  week  from  12 :30  until  i  o'clock,  made 
many  useful  articles,  such  as  a  sand-table,  a  window  seat,  and  weaving 
looms.  The  girls'  sewing  class  also  met  once  a  week,  and  they  too  fin- 
ished some  very  neat  and  attractive  pieces  of  work.  ]\Iiss  Mary  per- 
suaded the  directors  to  expend  a  small  sum  of  money  for  library  books. 
Fifteen  dollars  was  thus  obtained  and  spent  for  the  pupils'  reading 
circle  books  and  the  World  Today  magazine.  By  disposing  of  a  set  of 
Mary  J.  Holmes'  novels  she  was  enabled  to  purchase  a  set  of  supple- 
mentary readers  also.  Besides  all  this,  Miss  Mary  found  time  to  slip 
in  a  few  drawing  and  painting  lessons.  Music  was  not  neglected,  and 
many  happy  hours  were  spent  in  song. 

When  Miss  ^lary,  at  the  beginning  of  her  term,  stood  before  her 
school  of  noisy,  giggling,  mischievous  children,  she  knew  that  a  mighty 
undertaking  lay  before  her.  Many  times  she  felt  her  courage  ebbing 
away.  But  she  had  caught  a  spirit  of  enthusiasm  for  her  work,  and  at 
such  times  this  force  sustained  and  comforted  her. 

The  Regeneration  of  District  23 

I  shall  never  forget  how  the  schoolhouse  looked  the  day  I  began  my 
duties  as  teacher  in  District  23.  It  was  clean  but  very  bare.  The  cen- 
ter of  the  room  was  occupied  by  the  stove.  An  old  organ  covered  with 
dust  and  somewhat  "wheezy"  stood  in  one  corner.  Nothing  about  the 
room  suggested  cheer  but  some  old  sash  curtains  at  the  windows. 

It  took  all  of  the  fall  term  to  get  the  school  organized  and  properly 
graded.  The  middle  of  the  winter  term  I  had  a  box  social.  With  the 
proceeds  I  bought  some  pictures.  These  were  suitable  for  all  grades.  I 
also  gave  the  seats,  organ,  and  my  desk  and  chair  a  coat  of  jap-a-lac. 

In  the  spring  I  had  a  Mother's  Day.     There  were  mothers  present 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER    201 

who  had  never  been  in  the  school  while  it  was  in  session.  Later  the 
children  and  I  made  a  garden  and  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  fence  to 
keep  our  neighbors'  chickens  and  sheep  out.  The  fence  we  made  our- 
selves of  sticks,  wire  and  brush.  It  was  a  standing  joke  in  the  neigh- 
borhood. Nevertheless  it  answered  its  purpose.  School  closed  with  a 
picnic,  one  hundred  and  nine  being  present. 


Closing  Day  Picnic  in  District  23 

After  school  was  closed  I  went  to  Normal  to  attend  the  first  summer 
term.  Here  I  took  the  special  courses  offered  for  country  teachers 
and  returned  home  filled  with  plans  and  inspirations  for  the  coming 
school  year. 

About  the  middle  of  August,  before  school  began,  we  had  an  ice 
cream  social  at  the  home  of  one  of  the  patrons.  The  evening  was  spent 
in  playing  games,  singing,  and  instrumental  music.  The  sum  cleared 
was  over  eight  dollars.  With  this  I  bought  new  sash  curtains,  brass 
rods,  new  dark  green  window  shades,  mosquito  netting  for  the  win- 
dows, some  toweling,  a  looking  glass,  comb  case  and  combs,  washbasin, 
soap  and  soap  dish.    The  curtains  and  towels  were  hemmed  by  the  girls. 

Everything  was  ready  for  the  first  day.  The  schoolroom  had  been 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  stove  had  been  blacked ;  so  when  our  new 
green  shades  and  sash  curtains  were  hung  at  the  windows,  the  pictures 
put  up,  and  mosquito  netting  tacked  on  the  windows,  the  schoolroom 


202   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

looked  cozy  and  cheerful.  We  held  our  first  mothers'  meeting  of  this 
year  on  the  third  Friday  in  September.  Seven  of  the  district  were 
present.  They  watched  the  classes  the  fore  part  of  the  afternoon,  and 
after  recess  school  matters  and  the  home  training  of  the  children  were 
discussed.     Then  refreshments,  consisting  of  tea  and  cake,  were  served. 

We  next  held  a  dime  social  at  the  home  of  the  president  of  the  board. 
The  school  gave  a  program,  and  simple  refreshments  were  served. 
These  were  furnished  by  the  district;  so  the  money  taken  in  was  clear, 
amounting  to  ten  dollars.  This  was  handed  over  to  the  board  as  a  little 
financial  help  for  the  future,  and  as  an  excuse  to  watchful  tax  payers 
for  increased  generosity  upon  the  part  of  the  board. 

Our  next  event  was  a  Corn  Day,  held  October  14.  Two  directors,  the 
elevator  man,  and  nine  mothers  were  present!  We  gave  a  corn  pro- 
gram and  corn  exhibit.  The  schoolroom  was  decorated  by  the  children. 
It  was  the  first  celebration  of  its  kind  held  in  the  district.  Did  the 
people  enjoy  it?  Indeed  they  did.  It  was  something  that  interested 
the  entire  community.  Corn  is  the  staple  product  of  this  community  as 
of  most  others  in  Illinois,  and  one  way  to  get  the  parents  to  cooperate 
with  the  school  is  through  this  great  connecting  link. 

We  then  had  two  weeks'  vacation.  During  this  time  improvements 
were  commenced  on  the  schoolhouse.  The  foundation  was  raised,  a 
ntw  porch  was  built,  the  cistern  was  cleaned  and  re-covered,  and  the 
roof  shingled.  At  the  end  of  two  weeks  I  entered  my  school  and  found 
it  just  as  the  carpenters  had  left  it.  It  was  expected  that  I  should 
clean  the  schoolroom.  But,  for  the  education  of  the  district  and  for 
the  welfare  of  future  country  teachers,  this  I  refused  to  do ;  so  school 
was  closed  until  it  was  done.  The  children  and  I  cleaned  the  yard, 
and  with  the  new  pipe  fence  in  front  it  presented  a  neat,  home-like 
appearance. 

The  next  problem  that  confronted  us  was  the  stove.  It  didn't  take 
long  for  the  directors  to  decide  what  was  needed  in  this  line,  and  in 
November  a  Smith  Heating  Plant  was  installed.  Three  of  the  larger 
boys  and  myself  stayed  while  the  stove  was  put  up  and  arranged  the 
seats  according  to  the  size  of  the  children. 

We  continued  our  mothers'  meetings,  and  two  of  the  directors  actu- 
ally visited  the  school  and  seemed  to  be  interested  in  the  work  and 
anxious  for  the  school  to  progress. 

In  December  we  had  another  box  supper,  and  gave  the  Family 
Album,  getting  every  one  in  the  district  to  take  part.  We  cleared  fif- 
teen dollars.     This  money  aided  in  getting  me  a  new  desk  and  chair. 


LEADERSHIP  OF  THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER 


203 


We  needed  a  walk  from  the  porch  to  the  gate.  Boards  did  not 
answer  the  purpose,  so  the  boys  and  I  made  a  brick  walk,  which  proved 
more  substantial  and  helped  to  keep  the  porch  and  room  clean. 

Our  school  work  for  the  year  was  completed,  and  we  planned  a 
picnic.  But  the  weather  interfered  and  it  was  not  as  successtul  as 
that  of  the  year  before. 

Throughout  the  district  the  people  are  interested  in  the  school.  They 
are  anxious  for  continued  progress ;  so  I  have  made  a  few  plans  for 
next  year.  These  are :  To  make  the  course  of  study  conform  more 
closely  to  the  needs  of  the  children;  to  organize  boys'  and  girls'  clubs 
to  hold  the  interest  of  the  young  people,  and  especially  to  furnish  whole- 
some recreation;  and  to  have  a  Country  Life  Club,  including  everybody 
in  the  community.  Through  this  1  hope  to  awaken  a  greater  local 
interest  in  country  life  and  to  advance  the  social,  educational,  and 
spiritual  welfare  of  every  individual  in  the  district. 

Country  Life  Creed.  In  concluding  this  chapter  whose 
basic  theme  may  be  much  questioned,  I  shall  risk  repetition 
for  the  sake  of  understanding  and  offer  the  following  sum- 
mary of  my  personal  faith  concerning  the  function  of  the 
country  teacher  in  the  present  rural  situation: 

/  believe  that  the  great  underlying  problem  of  country  life 
is  the  problem  of  keeping  a  standard  people  upon  our  farms. 

To  solve  this  problem  I  believe  it  is  necessary  to  make 
country  life  fully  satisfying. 

This  satisfaction,  I  believe  farmers  zcill  bring  to  themselves 
through  learning  to  cooperate  in  the  upbuilding  of  a  complete 
community  life. 

Great  agencies  are  already  established  and  more  or  less  ade- 
quately functioning  as  instruments  of  cooperation  and  com- 
munity building.  Chief  among  these  are  the  home,  the  coun- 
try church,  the  farmers'  organization,  and  the  country  school. 

Of  these  I  believe  the  school  to  be  temporarily  first  in  lead- 
ership and  influence  because  cooperation  is  a  question  of  edu- 
cation, and  education  is  the  special  responsibility  of  the  school. 

I  believe  that  in  communities  where  homes  are  defective, 
churches    closed,    and    farmers'    organizations    wanting,    the 


204 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


school  may  become  the  agency  of  progress  toward  all  im- 
provement, even  teaching  the  service  of  other  institutions  and 
leading  to  their  establishment  and  regeneration. 

I  believe  that  the  school  can  do  yet  more ;  that  it  can  also 
teach  the  necessity  of  its  own  redirection  and  upbuilding. 

But  back  of  this  program  of  action  stands  the  country 
teacher.  For  her  I  believe  in  a  type  of  training  that  shall  sup- 
ply the  information,  the  special  adaptability,  and,  above  all,  the 
vision,   to   make   this  end  attainable. 

In  her  and  in  her  ability  to  justify  the  responsibility  thus 
placed  upon  her,  I  also  believe. 

Therefore,  my  conclusion  of  beliefs  in  the  leadership  of  the 
country  teacher  and  in  the  teacher's  office  as  a  chief  immediate 
factor  in  the  solution  of  the  farm  problem. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S   PROBLEM  AND 

ITS    ATTACK 

The  Problem  Stated.  In  the  preceding  chapter,  the  re- 
sponsibihty  of  the  country  teacher's  position  has  been  empha- 
sized. The  present  chapter  will  attempt  to  show  country 
teachers  how  to  attack  their  problem.  The  efforts  here  de- 
scribed have  all  been  tried  with  success,  most  of  them  in  a 
single  country  school. 

That  there  is  a  problem,  and  a  very  serious  one,  confronting 
every  country  teacher  would  seem  evident.  Yet,  many  coun- 
try teachers  do  not  realize  the  unity  and  magnitude  of  this 
problem  and  therefore  fail  to  make  any  organized  attack 
upon  the  difficulties  of  their  situation.  To  run  a  few  strag- 
gling children  through  the  dry  mechanics  of  a  daily  program 
seems  to  some  the  total  fulfillment  of  duty.  From  such  there 
is  little  to  hope.  But  from  the  larger  class  of  earnest  workers 
who  would  bring  the  joys  of  life  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of 
neglected  country  children,  there  is  everything  to  hope.  These 
fully  realize  their  problem  but  can  find  no  solution  that  fully 
solves,  no  path  that  leads  clear  through  the  tangle  of  dis- 
couraging difficulties  with  which  their  work  is  beset.  To 
teachers  of  this  class  the  problem  of  the  country  teacher  is 
very  real.  Though  differently  stated  by  each  individual,  in 
the  end  it  would  all  mean  the  same  thing — the  task  of  making 
the  school  the  strongest  possible  influence  in  enriching  the 
lives  of  those  for  whom  it  is  maintained.  In  this  connection 
it   should  be   remembered   that  the   school,  though   designed 

205 


2o6   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

primarily  for  the  education  of  the  young,  is  responsible  for  the 
whole  community  and  may  become,  as  formerly  pointed  out, 
a  chief  immediate  factor  working  toward  rural  betterment. 

The  problem  of  the  country  teacher,  therefore,  is  the  prob- 
lem of  accepting  conditions  as  they  now  exist,  physically,  edu- 
cationally, and  socially,  and  of  converting  the  country  school 
from  decay  and  inactivity  into  a  living,  vital  force  for  rural 
progress,  hi  other  words,  it  is  the  problem  of  making  the 
country  school  a  center  for  redirected  education  and  com- 
munity building. 

The  Method  of  Its  Attack.  Since  this  must  necessarily 
be  a  rather  long  treatment,  not  only  illustrating  a  course  of 
action  but  including  much  detailed  information,  it  may  be  well 
to  outline  briefly  the  four  large  points  of  attack  to  be  de- 
veloped. The  country  teacher's  problem  as  it  now  exists  may 
be  most  directly  controlled : 

1.  Through  spiritualizing  and  improving  the  physical  en-_ 
vironment  of  the  school. 

2.  Through  socializing  the  school  and  making  it  an  insti- 
tution of  community  service. 

3.  Through  vitalizing  and  enriching  the  course  of  study. 

4.  Through  improving  the  administration  of  the  school 
and  teaching  the  necessity  of  a  change  of  system,  or  consoli- 
dation. 

No  one  of  these  phases  can  be  individually  considered  and 
worked  out  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others.  All  must  be  con- 
stantly kept  in  mind  and  simultaneously  furthered. 

L     Improving  the  Physical  Environment  of  the  Country 

School 

The  Building:  Defects  of  Country  School  Buildings. 
There  are  many  defects  in  the  ordinary,  one-room  school 
building.  IMost  such  buildings,  or  at  least  their  styles  of 
architecture,  have  come  down  to  us  from  a  day  when  school- 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


207 


rooms  were  made  for  passive  listening  and  not  for  active 
work.  In  the  first  place,  the  average  country  school  build- 
ing is  far  too  small.  The  activities  that  must  now  take  place 
within  a  schoolroom  require  reasonable  space.  A  country 
schoolroom,  especially  where  there  is  no  second  room  pro- 
vided, needs  to  be  large,  covering  at  least  seven  hundred 
square  feet  of  floor  space.     It  is  not  unusual,  moreover,  to 


An  Old  Type  of  Country  School  Building 
There  are  many  defects  in  the  ordinary  one-room  school  building 

find  school  buildings  with  no  hall  or  cloak  room  of  any 
description.  Such  buildings  confess  at  once  that  they  w^ere 
planned  by  a  set  of  indifferent  or  penurious  directors,  who 
cared  more  for  a  few  cents  in  the  hand  than  the  convenience 
and  need  of  future  generations. 

For  the  sake  of  country  teachers  and  children  who  may 
still  have  to  live  for  years  in  one-room  schools,  I  wish  to. 
emphasize  the  necessity  of  a  second  room.  A  school  of  only 
one  room  should  never  be  built.     There  is  more  need  of  an 


2o8   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

additional  room,  even  a  small  one,  than  any  one  except  a 
teacher  can  quite  realize.  A  room  of  this  description  tends 
to  revolutionize  teaching  and  may  answer  a  score  of  pur- 
poses. It  is  convenient,  not  only  as  a  workshop,  storejoom, 
classroom,  laboratory,  lunch  and  playroom,  and  primary- 
room,  but  as  a  place  where  individual  children,  or  sm.all 
groups  of  children  may  withdraw  and  work  on  oral  reading, 
science  lessons,  and  other  work  requiring  space  and  freedom. 
The  practical  possibilities  of  an  additional  room  far  out- 
weigh the  small  expense  incurred  in  its  construction.  If  so 
desired,  the  basement  may  be  enlarged,  and  a  workroom, 
preferably  about  twenty  feet  square,  can  be  obtained  at  very 
little  expense.  A  basement  room,  however,  is  not  quite  so 
satisfactory  as  one  above,  owing  to  the  danger  of  poor  drain- 
age, dust,  and  dampness.  A  workroom  upstairs,  fully  ex- 
posed to  fresh  air  and  sunshine,  with  a  basement  large  enough 
to  contain  the  furnace,  fuel,  water-tank,  janitor  supplies,  school 
stores,  and  possibly  the  toilets  and  a  playroom,  will  be  found 
much  better  and  more  sanitary. 

A  fourth  defect  of  the  old-fashioned  country  school  is  the 
arrangement  of  windows  on  both  sides  of  the  room.  This 
allows  light  to  enter  from  opposite  directions,  and  results  in 
cross-lighting.  More  will  be  said  later  of  the  management 
of  light  in  such  rooms. 

Most  serious  of  all  defects,  however,  is  the  matter  of  ven- 
tilation. This  subject,  so  vitally  affecting  the  health  of  all 
concerned,  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  No  provision 
whatever  is  made  for  the  removal  of  foul  air  in  thousands 
of  country  schoolrooms  today.  To  those  who  have  studied 
this  question  its  neglect  seems  nothing  short  of  criminal. 

The  interior  finish  of  the  average  rural  school  is  also 
largely  a  matter  of  accident  and  usually  reveals  the  fact  most 
candidly.  For  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  thousands  of 
buildings,  there  is  positively  no  excuse,  not  even  that  of  econ- 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


209 


omy,  since  attractive  paper  and  paint  cost  no  more  than  the 
ludicrous  and  dingy  combinations  often  displayed.  The  same 
indifference  regarding  the  laws  of  harmony  and  good  taste 
manifested  within  the  schoolroom  is  usually  reflected  by  the 
exterior  appearance  of  the  building.  A  little,  barn-like  struc- 
ture, with  a  snub-nosed,  lean-to  attachment,  may  have  been 
considered  artistic  once,  but  it  certainly  does  not  fulfill  mod- 
ern requirements  of  architectural  fitness. 

While  many  school  officers  execute  their  duties  faithfully 
and  deserve  strong  words  of  commendation  for  their  sincere 
efforts  and  gratuitous  service,  there  are  others,  who,  through 
indift'erence  or  ignorance,  still  persist  in  perpetuating  incon- 
venient and  inartistic  schoolhouses  upon  the  children  of  the 
present  and  future.  For  the  poor  planning  of  a  new  school- 
house  there  is  now  no  excuse.  Directors  needing  assistance 
on  these  matters  should  consult  the  teacher  and  county  superin- 
tendent who,  through  their  experience,  should  be  able  to  give 
many  valuable  suggestions  concerning  the  needs  and  purposes 
of  a  school  building,  and  who  can  at  least  furnish  sources 
from  which  information  on  school  architecture  may  be  ob- 
tained. Nearly  every  state  now  makes  special  effort  to  spread 
this  information,  and  a  letter  to  the  state  superintendent's 
office  or  to  the  nearest  normal  school  will  usually  bring  the 
desired  assistance.  Assistant  Superintendent  U.  J.  Hoffman 
of  Illinois  has  prepared  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  One-Room 
and  Village  Schools  in  Illinois  which  mav  be  had  for  the  ask- 
ing  and  which  contains  several  good  plans  with  specifications 
and  costs.  The  Missouri  State  Normal  School  at  Kirksville 
has  built  a  model  rural  school  building  and  publishes  a  circu- 
lar describing  it.  Cornell  College  of  Agriculture  has  built  an 
excellent  model  upon  its  campus,  of  which  it  will  furnish  de- 
scriptive literature  upon  request.  Plans  and  explanations  of  a 
school  building  conforming  to  the  ideas  here  set  forth  are 
given  in  the  appendix  of  this  book.  (Section  3.) 


2IO   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

The  following  information  on  various  phases  of  school- 
room architecture  covers  only  the  most  essential  principles,  but 
is  given  here  with  the  conviction  that  its  dissemination  prop- 
erly belongs  to  the  country  teacher's  problem.  Her  explana- 
tion of  these  facts  is  often  the  only  means  of  enforcing  their 
significance,  and  she  thus  again  becomes  the  medium  of  en- 
lightenment and  progress. 

Heating  and  Ventilation.  The  necessity  of  pure  air  is 
still  a  subject  but  little  understood,  even  in  the  country  where 
fresh  air  and  sunshine  abound.  The  dangerous  effects  of  the 
use  of  vitiated  air  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  chil- 
dren, teachers,  or  parents.  Children  compelled  to  live  in  a 
vitiated  atmosphere  become  not  only  irritable  and  nervous, 
or  inactive,  but  are  made  susceptible  to  colds  and  disease  and 
ultimately  suft'er  from  a  general  lowering  of  bodily  strength 
and  vigor.  Alentally,  poor  ventilation  defeats  the  whole  pur- 
pose of  the  school,  as  it  has  been  scientifically  demonstrated 
that  children  inhaling  impure  air  cannot  be  intellectually 
active. 

Notwithstanding  all  this,  the  most  extreme  and  intolerable 
conditions  prevail  during  the  cold  weather  in  many  country 
schoolrooms.  The  ordinary  stove,  making  no  provision  what- 
ever for  the  circulation  and  purification  of  air,  is  heated  red 
hot,  the  children  are  allowed  to  gather  close  around  it,  win- 
dows and  doors  are  tightly  barricaded,  and  in  a  short  time 
the  air,  used  over  and  over  again  by  the  unsuspecting  in- 
mates, becomes  so  vitiated  that  it  can  be  actually  felt,  smelled, 
and  tasted  by  one  entering  the  room  from  outside.  Although 
the  problem  of  ventilation  in  a  schoolroom  wholly  unprovided 
with  any  mechanical  means  for  the  exchange  of  air  is  undoubt- 
edly difficult  and  baffling,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  the  worst 
cases  of  neglect  are  due  to  the  ignorance  and  indifference  of 
teachers.  \\'hen  things  have  gone  so  far  that  the  children 
become  languid  and  sleepy,  it  is  time  for  action.     Open  the 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


211 


windows  to  their  very  limit.  Let  the  children  march,  run,  play 
leap-frog,  or  do  almost  anything  requiring  bodily  exertion, 
while  the  room  is  thoroughly  flushed  with  pure  air.  Repeat 
this  performance  at  least  once  during  every  session. 

Here  are  a  few  facts  concerning  ventilation  that  every 
teacher  should  know  and  religiously  impress  upon  the  chil- 
dren, parents,  and  directors  of  her  community.  Only  in  this 
way  will  the  subject  receive  adequate  attention. 


A  New  Type  of  Country  School  Building 

This  beautiful  building  stands  on  the  campus  of  Cornell  College  of  Agriculture. 
Cost  about  $2,000.  Its  special  feature  is  a  workroom.  Send  to  the  College 
at  Ithaca,   New  York,  for  descriptive  circular 


1.  Each  child  should  have  30  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  per 
minute,  or  about  2,000  cubic  feet  per  hour.  This  means  that 
an  average  schoolroom  whose  dimensions  are,  say  20x30x12 
feet,  will  properly  supply  twenty  children  for  only  twelve 
minutes;  and  that  the  air  in  such  a  room  should  be  completely 
changed  at  least  Hve  times  in  a  single  hour. 

2.  An  ordinary  open  stove  heats  only  the  immediate  sec- 


212   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

tion  of  the  room  and  makes  no  provision  whatever  for  the 
exchange  and  distribution  of  air. 

3.  A  good  ventilating  system  is  one  that  answers  the  fol- 
lowing requirements:  (a)  removes  foul  air  and  introduces 
pure ;  (b)  distributes  the  fresh  air  equally  well  to  all  parts  of 
the  room;  (c)  maintains  an  equality  of  temperature;  (d) 
supplies  necessary  moisture;  and  (e)   avoids  drafts. 

4.  A  system  of  efficient  ventilation  can  be,  and  should  be, 
provided  for  every  country  school. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said,  the  following  means  are 
recommended  for  the  ventilation  of  "country  schools: 

1.  In  the  first  place,  the  teacher  can  flush  the  room  with 
pure  air  and  then  resort  to  the  well  known  device  of  insert- 
ing a  board  under  the  lower  window  sash.     In  a  room  known 

o 

to  be  defective  in  this  respect,  one  window  at  least,  on  the 
leeward  side  of  the  building,  should  always  be  kept  open  while 
the  children  are  in  the  room.  When  lowered  from  the  top,  it 
will  usually  injure  no  one.  This  method,  of  course,  is  but  an 
inadequate  makeshift. 

2.  The  stove  may  be  jacketed.  This,  if  properly  done,  will 
insure  correct  conditions.  A  sheet  iron  screen  standing  around 
the  stove,  however,  is  not  a  jacket  and  should  not  be  mis- 
taken for  one.  The  screen  is  absolutely  useless  so  far  as 
ventilation  is  concerned,  and  serves  only  as  a  protection  from 
the  more  intense  rays  of  heat.  A  true  jacket  is  an  air- 
tight covering,  enclosing  the  stove,  extending  clear  to  the 
floor  and  open  only  at  the  top.  It  draws  pure  air  from 
outside  through  a  duct,  opening  into  a  hole  in  the  floor  under 
the  stove.  Fresh  cold  air  thus  passes  in  around  the  stove,  is 
heated,  and  rises  to  the  ceiling,  eventually  working  its  way 
down  to  the  children.  The  opening  of  doors  and  windows, 
or  a  register  in  the  side  wall  near  the  floor,  is  often  depended 
upon  to  remove  impure  air,  but  fails  to  do  so,  owing  to  the 
greater    pressure    of    the    colder    air    on    the    outside.      The 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  213 

impure  air  cannot  be  drawn  out  unless  a  draft  is  created, 
and  this  requires  heat.  The  following  plan,  recommended 
by  Mr.  U.  J.  Hoflfman  of  the  Illinois  Department  of  Educa- 
tion, is  an  excellent  method  of  jacketing  a  stove. 

At  the  corner  of  the  house  cut  a  hole  in  the  foundation  wall  and 
another  through  the  floor  where  the  stove  is  to  stand.  Connect  these 
openings  with  a  galvanized  iron  pipe,  and  surround  the  stove  with  a 
galvanized  iron  jacket  about  eight  inches  from  the  sides  of  the  stove. 
The  jacket  should  reach,  and  be  fastened  to  the  floor,  and  be  extended 
to  a  height  of  five  feet.  There  should  be  a  door  in  the  jacket  through 
which  fuel  may  be  placed  in  the  stove  and  through  which  the  ash  box 
can  be  removed.  There  should  be  another  door  at  the  bottom  of  the 
jacket.  It  should  not  be  on  hinges,  but  should  be  so  attached  that  it 
may  be  raised  or  lowered.  It  should  be  twelve  inches  wide  and  eighteen 
inches  high.  The  hole  in  the  floor  should  be  12  by  16  inches,  and  pro- 
vided with  the  ordinary  hot  air  register,  thus  making  it  possible  to 
regulate  the  amount  of  air  admitted  or  to  shut  it  off  altogether.  When 
the  room  is  to  be  heated  quickly  the  register  should  shut  out  the  outside 
air.  By  opening  the  sliding  door  in  the  jacket  the  air  within  the  room 
is  admitted  to  the  furnace.  When  the  room  is  sufficiently  warm  and 
the  children  are  present  the  register  should  be  opened  and  the  sliding 
door  closed. 

In  order  that  fresh  air  may  flow  into  the  room  through  the  furnace 
it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  that  an  equal  amount  of  foul  air  escape 
from  the  room.  This  can  be  done  by  attaching  a  ten-inch  galvanized 
pipe  to  the  jacket  and  extending  it  from  within  six  inches  of  the  floor 
upward  through  the  roof.  This  will  take  air  off  the  floor  outside  the 
furnace.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  damper  so  that  it  may  be  closed 
when  on  very  windy  days  the  air  might  come  down  this  pipe.  The 
expense  should  not  exceed  $20.00.  This  home-made  room  furnace  can 
be  depended  upon  to  heat  and  ventilate  the  room  as  effectually  as  a 
high-priced  patented  one.     Any  tinner  can  make  it. 

3.  The  recent  awakening  to  the  seriousness  of  this  ques- 
tion of  ventilation  has  resulted  in  the  manufacture  of  several 
good  mechanical  ventilating  systems.  Among  the  best  known 
of  these  are  the  Smith  System  of  Heating  and  Ventilation, 
put  out  by  the  ]\Ianuel-Smith  Heating  Company,  of  Minneapo- 
lis, and  the  Waterman-\\'aterbury  System,  also  of  ]\Iinneapo- 


214   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

lis.^  These  heaters  operate  upon  the  same  principle  as  the 
properly  jacketed  stove,  except  that  they  are  capable  of  dis- 
charging both  smoke  and  foul  air  from  a  single  chimney 
through  the  use  of  a  patented  device,  called  a  mixer.  Either 
make  can  be  purchased  and  placed  on  the  floor  by  a  com- 
petent agent  for  from  ninety  to  one  hundred  twenty-five 
dollars — a  small  sum,  indeed,  compared  with  the  benefit 
derived. 

4.  A  furnace,  however,  provides  by  far  the  most  satis- 
factory system  of  heating  and  ventilating,  being  not  only  much 
cleaner  and  more  sightly  but  saving  valuable  floor  space. 
Small  furnaces  are  now  on  the  market  at  reasonable  cost, 
and  nothing  else  should  ever  be  installed  in  a  new  building. 
But  with  furnaces  as  with  other  systems  of  heating,  proper 
attention  must  be  given  to  ventilation.  A  double  chimney  is 
a  necessity.  If  desired  a  screened  fireplace  may  be  built  in  the 
ventilating,  flue,  serving  not  only  as  an  air  register  but  upon 
occasions  as  a  genial  companion,  and  during  early  fall  and 
late  spring  as  a  fuel  saver. 

With  every  heating  plant  care  should  be  exercised  to  see 
that  moisture  is  assured.  Furnaces  and  manufactured  sys- 
tems usually  have  water-pans.  If  overlooked  these  should 
be  demanded  at  the  time  of  installation,  and  the  teacher 
should  then  see  that  they  are  kept  filled.  When  stoves  are 
used,  a  small  tea-kettle  or  an  open  pan  may  be  provided  as 
a  substitute.  Dry  air  is  extremely  disagreeable  and  injuri- 
ous to  the  health  of  the  children. 

Lighting.  The  eyes  are  as  delicate  as  the  lungs  and 
require  as  much  care.  Every  teacher  should  have  a  letter 
chart,  which  may  be  procured   free   from  almost  any  physi- 

1  All  recommendations  of  manufactured  articles  made  in  this  chapter 
and  elsewhere  throughout  this  book  are  expressions  of  independent  per- 
sonal opinion  and  investigation,  based  wholly  upon  fitness  and  adapta- 
tion to  country  school  needs. 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  215 

cian  or  oculist,  and  should  make  simple  tests  upon  the  chil- 
dren for  nearsightedness,  farsightedness,  and  other  common 
ailments,  especially  with  those  children  who  complain  of  head- 
aches and  show  signs  of  trouble.  When  weaknesses  are  dis- 
covered, the  teacher  should  make  every  possible  effort  to 
impress  upon  parents  the  necessity  of  wearing  glasses  or  of 
making  other  proper  medical  provision  for  relief.  Nothing 
is  more  dangerous  than  delay  in  such  cases.  Troubles  that 
might  be  remedied  if  given  early  attention  are  often  neglected 
until   past   all   permanent   cure. 

Before  considering  the  lighting  of  country  schools,  it  is 
well  to  know  the  following  general  principles : 

1.  The  light  should  come  largely  from  above  and  be  dif- 
fused evenly  from  the  ceiling,  throughout  the  room. 

2.  No  part  of  the  room  should  be  insufficiently  lighted. 

3.  There  should  be  no  glare  of  light  reflected  from  below, 
as  from  window  sills,  desks,  or  floors. 

4.  There  should  be  no  cross-lights. 

5.  Light  should  be  admitted  only  from  the  left  side,  though 
small  windows  in  the  back  are  not  especially  harmful. 

6.  The  w^indow^  space  should  equal  at  least  one-sixth  of  the 
floor  space.     Some  authorities  say  one-fourth. 

As  is  well  known,  the  chief  misery  of  country  schools  in 
this  respect  is  the  defect  of  cross-lighting,  resulting  from, 
the  old-fashioned  notion  of  placing  windows  on  both  sides 
of  the  building.  This  condition  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
defects  of  old-time  construction  and  should  be  speedily  rem- 
edied in  every  building  w^iere  it  exists,  by  putting  all  the 
windows  on  the  left  side.  In  the  meantime,  it  may  be  some- 
what controlled  by  the  use  of  heavy  blinds  that  can  be  ad- 
justed so  as  to  shield  the  lower  half  of  the  window,  w^hile 
exposing  the  upper  half.  Such  an  arrangement  is  now^  made 
easy  and  practicable  by  the  manufacture  of  a  pulley  device 
known  as  the  Johnson  Window  Shade  Adjuster..    These  ad- 


2i6   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

justers  are  listed  with  price  and  place  of  manufacture  among 
other  country  school  equipment  in  the  appendix  of  this  book. 
(Section  4.) 

The  old-time  shutter  is  not,  as  some  suppose,  an  adequate 
blind  for  the  protection  of  the  eyes.  It  is  not  only  clumsy 
and  certain  to  screen  the  whole  window  when  only  a  partial 
shadow  is  desired,  but  admits  the  light  in  bars  and  streaks, 
giving  a  checker-board  effect  most  harmful  to  the  eye.  The 
Venetian  blind,  a  shade  made  of  wooden  slats  running  hori- 
zontally on  strong  tape,  is  regarded  by  some  as  desirable, 
but  is  very  likely  to  prove  an  admirable  dust-trap,  and,  like 
the  shutter,  has  the  same  objectionable  feature  of  admitting 
light  in  bars  of  sunshine  and  shadow.  The  color  of  the 
walls  has  much  to  do  with  the  problem  of  lighting,  and  this 
should  be  borne  in  mind  when  selecting  paper  or  tinting. 
The  common  practice  of  choosing  dark  paper  because  it  will 
better  hide  dust  or  smoke  is  atrocious.  The  walls  should 
always  be  comparatively  light,  and  the  ceiling  very  light. 

Evening  light  is  an  important  point  of  schoolroom  effi- 
ciency in  the  country  where  the  building  should  frequently 
be  used  for  community  gatherings.  Gasoline  fixtures  are 
often  recommended  for  this  purpose,  but  their  expense  and 
danger  argue  against  them  somewhat.  Alcohol  lamps  and 
good  oil  lamps  are  now  manufactured  which  are  thoroughly 
safe  and  give  a  light  almost  equal  to  that  of  gasoline.  Some 
of  these   are   recommended   in   the   appendix.      (Section   4.) 

Interior  Finish  and  Decoration.  A  whole  school  is  often 
reformed  in  matters  of  conduct  by  a  few  rolls  of  paper  and 
a  little  paint.  Any  child  finds  it  easier  to  be  clean  of  body 
and  of  mind  in  a  clean,  attractive  room  than  in  one  where 
half  the  plaster  is  gone  and  the  paper  hangs  in  festoons  of 
dusty  cobwebs.  All  this  is  now  so  generally  accepted  as 
truth  that  it  is  hard  to  account  for  existins:  conditions.  The 
general    neglect    and    unpleasing,    often    ludicrous,    combina- 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


217 


tions  of  color  displayed  in  many  country  schools,  however,  are 
too  familiar  to  need  comment. 

A  general  color  scheme  should  be  planned  and  carried 
out  in  decorating  the  walls  of  any  room.  It  is  first  necessary 
to  decide  whether  the  scheme  shall  be  warm  or  cool.     The 


Library  Room,  Peru  School,  Macon  County,  Illinois 
An  ordinary  country  school  entrance  converted  into  a  reading-room 


warm  colors  include  the  shades  and  tints  of  red,  brown,  and 
yellow,  while  the  cool  colors  include  the  shades  and  tints  of 
blue,  gray,  and  green.  Since  country  schools  are  in  session 
chiefly  during  inclement  weather,  a  warm  scheme  is  perhaps 
best  for  them.  Plain,  patternless  paper,  or  wall  tint,  should 
be  selected,  as  it  makes  a  more  restful  surface  for  the  eyes. 


2i8   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

A  shade  not  too  dark  should  be  used  for  the  walls,  and 
very  light  tints,  usually  cream,  for  the  ceiling.  The  wood- 
work, if  old,  may  be  painted  a  darker  shade  of  the  same 
color.  Green  paper  is  less  satisfactory  than  brown  because 
more  likely  to  fade  and  to  contain  chemical  coloring  mat- 
ter injurious  to  the  lungs.  In  case  the  building  is  ceiled, 
the  walls  and  ceiling  may  be  painted  in  three  shades  of  the 
same  color,  but  the  color  chosen  must  be  light  and  cheerful. 
New  buildings,  however,  should  never  be  papered,  but  tinted. 
What  decorators  call  water-color  is  the  most  economical  and 
best  finish  and  the  most  easily  applied.  It  can  be  used  suc- 
cessfully over  rough  plaster.  Woodwork  in  a  new  building 
should  be  finished  in  the  natural  wood. 

When  a  room  is  once  well  finished,  the  whole  effect  must 
not  be  ruined  by  careless  and  untidy  wall  decorations  or  by 
over-decorating.  Frames  for  schoolroom  pictures  should  be 
simple  and  plain  and  should  correspond  with  the  general  ef- 
fect of  the  pictures.  Pictures  should  be  hung  neither  in  a 
dark  corner  nor  in  a  glare  of  light,  nor  so  high  that  the 
children  get  no  benefit  of  them.  A  list  of  good  pictures 
relating  especially  to  country  life  is  given  in  the  appendix  of 
this  book.  (Section  8.)  The  work  of  the  children  also  de- 
serves a  display  on  the  walls,  but  it  should  not  be  carelessly 
stuck  around  anywhere,  to  collect  dust  and  flutter  to  the  floor 
upon  the  least  provocation  from  the  wind.  The  most  satisfac- 
tory and  convenient  plan  for  displaying  such  material  is  to 
cover  a  section  of  the  wall  space  with  cork  carpet,  burlap,  or 
denim,  and  firmly  tack  each  piece  of  work  upon  this  surface. 
Thin  pine  board  or  building  paper  may  be  first  nailed  under 
the  burlap  or  denim  to  make  a  body  for  holding  the  tacks. 
Movable  bulletin  boards  may  be  constructed  on  separate 
frames  in  the  same  way. 

But  a  room  may  be  well  decorated  and  still  prove  unpleas- 
ing  in  effect  unless  the  little  touches  that  add  so  much  to 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


:I9 


its  homelike  influence  are  carefully  given.  Simple  glass  vases 
are  cheap,  and  a  cluster  of  well  arranged  flowers  will  often 
brighten  a  whole'  day.  The  children  should  be  shown  how 
to  pick  flowers,  and  the  teacher  can  easily  illustrate  the 
dift'erence  in  effect  between  a  motley,  short-stemmed,  breath- 
less bunch,  and  a  free,  artistic  spray  arranged  with  some 
thought  of  harmony  in  color  and  proportion.  Such  things 
may  seem  trivial,  perhaps,  to  one  who  has  not  observed  their 
eft'ect  upon  children,  but  details  make  up  the  whole  in  school- 
room decoration  as  truly  as  elsewhere.  At  any  rate,  it  is 
evident  that  a  fresh  green  fern,  a  vase  of  poppies,  or  a  bowl 
of  violets,  must  be  somewhat  more  spiritualizing  than  the 
battered  dinner  pails  and  basins  of  dirty  water  that  some- 
times adorn  the  interior  of  country  schoolrooms. 

Seating.  The  old-fashioned  double  desk  with  its  "jack- 
knife  carved  initial"  and  fond  memory  of  seatmates  may 
be  romantic,  but  it  is  certainly  very  unsanitary  and  inconve- 
nient. Through  its  use  there  is  an  utter  neglect  of  adjust- 
ment in  the  seating  of  children.  How  serious  this  neglect 
may  become  is  shown  by  the  numerous  cases  of  round  shoul- 
ders and  poor  physiques  found  even  among  country  boys 
and  girls.  Nowhere  in  fact  is  the  question  of  bodily  com- 
fort so  much  disregarded  as  in  country  school  seating.  Large 
overgrown  boys  are  frequently  cramped  into  seats  about  half 
large  enough  for  them,  while  tender  six-year-olds  are  sub- 
merged in  a  pile  of  old  lumber  over  which  they  can  barely 
peer  out  at  the  big  world.  Frequently,  too,  the  seats  are 
arranged  supposedly  to  grade  from  rear  to  front,  but  really 
to  descend  by  jogs  and  jumps  most  uncomfortable  to  those 
who  sit  on  the  connecting  lines. 

The  chief  defects  of  common  school  seats  are: 
I.     Improper   adjustment    in   height,    causing   children    to 
swing  their  feet  in  space.     This  often  causes  injury  to  the 
spinal  column. 


220   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

2.  A  slant  in  exactly  the  wrong  direction  along  the  back, 
allowing  no  freedom  of  movement  for  the  hips,  or  pelvic 
girdle,  when  writing. 

3.  Improper  adjustment  to  the  arms,  the  desks  being 
usually  either  too  high  or  too  low. 

4.  A  lack  of  any  provision  for  holding  books  closer  to 
the  eyes  while  reading. 

Although  no  seats  now  on  the  market  correct  all  the 
deficiencies  here  pointed  out,  the  best  for  general  use  are 
the  single  adjustable  desks  and  chairs  which  can  be  fitted  to 
individual  children.  A  few  turns  of  the  wrench,  and  every 
child  can  be  placed  in  a  seat  fitted  to  him  with  his  feet  firmly 
touching  the  floor.  Such  an  investment  may  cost  more  in 
the  beginning  but  will  be  found  to  yield  paying  returns  in 
straight  backs,  square  shoulders,  and  general  bodily  comfort 
and  health.  For  the  purchasing  address  and  cost  of  these 
seats  see  the  appendix  of  this  book.  (Section  4.)  When  good 
seats  have  been  procured,  they  must  be  properly  placed  on  the 
floor.  The  proper  method  is  not  to  put  the  large  seats  in  the 
rear  and  the  small  ones  in  front,  but  to  arrange  the  various 
sizes  in  different  rows  and  to  lap  each  seat  not  more  than  three 
nor  less  than  two  inches  under  its  desk. 

For  the  little  children,  a  low  primary  table  and  a  dozen  small 
chairs  solve  the  seating  problem  most  excellently.  Such  a 
table  can  be  made  by  the  older  boys  or  purchased  from  any 
school  supply  house,  and  the  chairs  can  be  obtained  from  the 
same  source  for  about  sixty  cents  each.  The  great  convenience 
of  these  chairs  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  They  are  use- 
ful not  only  around  the  table  for  the  younger  children  but 
as  recitation  seats  for  the  whole  school,  thus  making  way  with 
the  awkward  long  benches  over  which  everyone  is  inclined 
to  stumble.  Their  light  w^eight  makes  them  easily  movable, 
and  their  size  and  color  greatly  endear  them  to  the  hearts  of 
six-year-olds. 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  221 

Sanitation  and  Care.  Cleanliness  is  said  to  be  next  to 
godliness,  and  in  the  schoolroom  it  is  certainly  next  ahead. 
There  are  two  difficult  phases  of  the  problem  of  school  sani- 
tation. One  of  these,  ventilation,  has  been  considered  at  some 
length ;  the  other,  the  control  of  dust,  is  also  quite  a  task  in  a 
room  filled  with  active  children.  However,  it  can  and  should 
be  solved. 

Dust,  even  chalk  dust,  need  not  be  tolerated.  The  school- 
room, where  children  from  different  families  are  brought  so 
closely  and  constantly  together,  should  be  the  cleanest  of  all 
places.  Yet  people  who  regularly  scrub  their  ow^n  floors  once 
or  twice  a  week  think  nothing  of  allowing  children  to  sit  day 
after  day  in  a  room  that  has  not  felt  a  drop  of  purifying 
water  for  months.  It  is,  indeed,  the  actual  truth  that  hun- 
dreds of  schools  are  scrubbed  only  once  or  twice  a  year ! 
Such  practices  are  wholly  inexcusable. 

The  care  of  a  room,  as  of  most  things,  needs  only  to  be 
managed  through  a  little  systematic  planning  and  attention. 
The  first  step  for  a  teacher  to  take  upon  entering  a  dirty  and 
repulsive  building  is  to  have  a  plain,  face-to-face  talk  with  the 
directors  concerning  the  necessity  of  clean  paper  and  a  little 
paint.  Whether  she  gains  her  point  or  not,  the  building  must 
be  thoroughly  cleaned,  whoever  does  it.  When  once  well 
cleaned,  the  work  of  keeping  it  respectable  is  not  severe,  if 
regularly  and  constantly  attended  to.  Where  the  teacher  must 
do  her  own  janitor  w^ork,  it  will  pay  her  to  employ  one  of 
the  strongest  and  most  reliable  of  the  older  girls  to  assist. 
A  country  boy  is  usually  a  misfit  w^hen  put  at  housework, 
and  no  boy  will  give  the  little  touches  necessary  to  order  and 
cleanliness.  Brooms,  mops,  pails,  cloths,  soap,  and  cleaning 
materials  must  be  well  provided,  and  in  a  businesslike  manner, 
just  as  in  a  home.  When  well  kept  up,  the  work,  though 
hard,  will  absorb  the  interest  and  prove  attractive. 

One  of  the  chief  sources  of  dust  in  a  schoolroom  is  the 


222    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

blackboard.      But   with    proper    care    its   annoyance    may    oe 
greatly  reduced.     Boards  in  country  schools  are  often  poor 
things  at  best,  and  a  coat  of  chalk  dust  adds  nothing  to  their 
efficiency.     They  should  be  washed  every  day  and  the  trays 
well  cleaned.     This  will  be   found  a  light  task  if   regularly 
done,   and  will   simplify  the   care  of  the  whole   room.     The 
erasers  should  be  cleaned  whenever  dust-filled,  at  least  two 
or  three  times  a  day.     The  task  is  only  a  minute's  exercise 
for  some  of  the   small  boys,  who  are  always  glad  to  help. 
Children  should  be  taught  the  danger  to  the  lungs  of  float- 
ing dust  particles  and  should  not  be  allowed  to  dust  an  eraser 
inside  the  room,  or  to  bring  in  mud,  or  in  any  way  add  to  the 
dust  supply.     Dustless  crayon  is  best  to  use,  as  it  not  only 
makes  less  dust,  but  writes  better.     Paper  boards,  which  are  a 
very  good  substitute  for  slate,  dustless  crayon,  and  noiseless 
erasers  made  entirely  of  felt,  can  now  be  obtained  from  any 
reliable  school  supply  house.    The  addresses  of  a  few  of  these 
houses  and  of  some  manufacturing  companies  producing  these 
articles  may  all  be  found  in  the  list  of  country  school  equip- 
ment recommended  in  the  appendix. 

The  old,  rough  floor  with  its  great  cracks,  presents  another 
matter  for  consideration.  Perhaps  the  best  covering  for  a 
schoolroom  floor  would  be  cork  carpet  or  linoleum,  but  both 
are  too  expensive  to  be  practical.  A  few  square  feet  of  bright 
colored  linoleum  for  the  hall  floor  will  not  cost  much,  how- 
ever, and  will  add  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  entrance. 
For  the  old  floor,  nothing  better  can  be  recommended  than 
the  application  of  a  couple  of  coats  of  good  floor  paint.  The 
cracks  should  first  be  filled  with  crack-filler  and  putty,  so  that 
they  will  no  longer  serve  as  dust  catchers.  A  well  painted  floor 
can  be  mopped  in  a  few  minutes  and  should  be  so  treated  at 
least  once  in  two  weeks.  A  rug  across  the  front  of  the  room 
will  be  found  nerve-soothing  and  may  be  both  sanitary  and 
attractive.     Children  should  be  emphatically  taught  to  clean 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  22^ 

their  shoes  and  remove  their  overshoes  before  entering  the 
building.  Such  a  lesson  will  add  possibly  more  to  the  comfort 
of  humanity  than  some  things  in  arithmetic  and  grammar. 
When  tactfully  managed,  the  children  are  glad  to  cooperate 
with  the  teacher  in  securing  and  keeping  a  school  beautiful. 

Another  source  of  infection  aside  from  dust  and  bad  air 
is  the  public  drinking  cup.  Drinking  w^ater  should  not  be 
kept  in  the  building  if  there  is  a  well  on  the  grounds,  as  there 
always  should  be.  When  water  must  be  kept  inside,  a  special 
tank  with  a  faucet  and  a  tightly  fitted  cover  should  be  pro- 
vided. Individual  drinking  cups  are  necessary  and  can  be 
easily  and  cheaply  supplied.  All  cups  should  be  scoured  fre- 
quently and  aired  in  the  sunshine.  Children  should  be  allowed 
and  encouraged  to  drink  quantities  of  water,  but  care  must  be 
taken  to  have  it  pure  and  clean.  This  means  that  the  well  must 
be  carefully  cleaned  and  watched.  The  contents  of  many 
wells  would  shock  the  whole  commtmity  if  brought  to  view. 
The  drainage  of  the  well  is  a  matter  of  vital  importance. 
Dirty  water  constantly  dripping  back  into  the  drinking  supply 
is  repulsive,  to  say  the  least.  A  tile  drain  can  be  easily  laid 
and  is  the  best  provision  for  this  purpose.  The  directors  or 
large  boys  can  put  in  such  a  drain  with  but  little  expense. 

The  Improvement  of  the  Grounds.  Just  why  trees, 
flowers,  and  shrubs  will  not  grow  on  school  grounds  is  truly 
something  of  an  agricultural  mystery.  When  land  that  raises 
eighty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  on  one  side  of  the  fence 
refuses  to  nourish  a  bed  of  tulips  or  a  few  shrubs  on  the 
other  side,  we  must,  of  force,  conclude  that  something  else, 
or  the  lack  of  something  else,  enters  into  the  balance  against 
the  school  yard.  How  rarely,  in  even  the  richest  of  our  agri- 
cultural states,  are  country  school  grounds  made  an  influence 
of  beauty  for  the  children  and  people  of  the  surrounding 
community.  But  before  much  is  done  by  way  of  improvement, 
we  must  succeed  in  establishing  a  new  ideal  among  country 


224   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


Cultivating  Minds  and  Spirits 
Through  Flower  Gardens 


teachers.  This  ideal  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  belief 
that  the  school  should  be,  in  all  things,  a  power  for  beauty 
and  good;  and  that  it  should,  in  the  matter  of  outdoor  art, 

be  so  maintained  as  to  set 
an  example  of  local  pos- 
sibilities to  every  home. 
True,  there  is  certainly 
enough  for  one  teacher  to 
do  in  a  country  school 
without  seeking  to  become 
a  landscape  gardener.  But 
ihis  is  by  no  means  the 
end  desired.  True,  too, 
the  first  duty  of  the  school 
is  cultivating  minds,  not 
flower  gardens.  But  the 
sensible  teacher  will  not 
lose  her  perspective  and  shift  her  attention  from  the  children 
to  the  plants.  The  sensible  teacher  will  cultivate  not  flozver 
gardens,  hut  minds  and  spirits  through  floiver  gardens. 

Beginning  Yard  Improvement.  The  first  act  on  the  part 
of  an  untrained  teacher  ambitious  to  do  something  for  yard 
improvement  should  be  to  make  a  simple  landscape  plan  of 
the  school  grounds.  This  should  be  done  early  in  the  year, 
during,  the  first  month  of  school  preferably,  for  it  will  then  be 
done,  and  furthermore  much  of  the  work  in  planting  needs 
to  be  started  in  the  early  fall.  ]\Iany  suggestions  and  aids 
are  now  at  hand  for  teachers  who  work  faithfully  on  such 
an  undertaking.  Several  state  departments  issue  literature 
upon  this  subject.  Here  are  four  simple  directions  that  can  be 
effectively  followed  by  any  person:  i.  Use  common,  familiar 
things.  2.  Plant  in  masses,  avoiding  straight  lines.  3.  Leave 
open  spaces.  4.  Select  things  adapted  to  the  climate.  Use  the 
plant  life  of  the  local  neighborhood  as  much  as  possible.    Do 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  225 

this  not  only  because  it  is  beautiful  and  abundant  but  be- 
cause it  should  be  the  mission  of  the  school  to  reveal  this 
common,  everyday  beauty  of  field,  forest,  and  stream.  How 
often  the  mutilation  of  trees,  the  neglect  of  yards,  and  the 
vision  of  unsightly  dumping  grounds  show  a  lack  of  such  ap- 
preciation !  Plant,  by  all  means,  as  Nature  does,  in  irregular 
masses,  leaving  open  spaces  for  the  eye  to  rest  upon. 

What  to  Plant:  Trees.  If  the  grounds  are  treeless,  trees 
should  receive  first  attention.  Set  them  not  in  mathematical 
rows  with  the  stiff  military  precision  formerly  so  much  ad- 
mired, but  irregularly  and  naturally,  as  they  grow'  in  their 
native  woods.  If  shade  is  needed  immediately,  the  soft  wood 
trees,  especially  those  of  the  maple  family,  as  box-elder  and 
soft-maple,  will  grow  more  rapidly  than  others,  though  in  a 
permanent  plan  they  are  not  good,  as  they  split  easily  in  storms. 
Elms,  oaks,  lindens,  hard  maples,  and  evergreens  are  much 
the  best  varieties  to  choose,  not  only  for  beauty  but  for 
strength,  vigor,  and  permanency.  Evergreens  are  especially 
good  as  bird  attractors,  and  the  interest  of  the  birds  should 
always  be  considered  in  this  matter  of  tree  planting.  For 
screens  around  outbuildings  or  for  windbreaks,  nothing  can 
surpass  a  clump  of  evergreens.  The  best  varieties  are  the 
firs  and  spruces.  The  method  of  transplanting  trees  is  too 
technical  to  be  considered  here,  but  the  necessity  of  transplant- 
ing early  must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  first  warm  days,  just 
when  the  sap  begins  to  stir,  and  long  before  the  leaves  appear, 
is  the  best  time.  _ 

Shrubs.  Shrubs  may  be  made  a  most  important  factor  in 
beautifying  a  yard.  They  are  not  only  captivating  and  showy 
in  eft'ect  but  rapid  in  growth  and  prompt  in  blooming.  Favor 
the  wild  ones.  Crab-apple,  sumach,  red-bud,  .dogwood,  and 
wild  plum  are  all  to  be  had  for  the  taking.  Among  cultivated 
shrubs,  lilac,  flowering  almond,  flowering  quince, ,  snow-ball, 
and  roses,  especially  the  ramblers,  are  always  popular.     For 


226   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


big  strong  color  effects  in  the  rear  grounds  or  fence  corners 
nothing  is  better  than  the  golden  spirea.  Shrubs  of  the  ber- 
ried variety  are  especially  attractive  in  winter  when  most 
plant  life  is  bare  and  cheerless.  Send  to  Mr.  Fred  Haxton, 
owner  of  the  Ottawa  Gardens,  4717  Winthrop  Avenue,  Chi- 
cago,  for  free  booklets  entitled  "Twelve  Best   Shrubs"   and 

''Twelve  Best  Perennials." 
Vines.  In  the  selection 
of  vines,  it  is  well  again 
to  take  suggestions  from 
the  wild  woods.  What  in 
the  way  of  vines  can  be 
prettier  than  the  deep- 
eyed  woodbine  in  early 
fall  or  the  fragrant  wild 
grape  in  the  spring? 
Among    the    tame    vines 


mornmg- 


there  are  the 
glory,  hyacinth  bean,  wis- 
taria, moon-flower,  Ma- 
deira vine,  Boston  ivy, 
and  a  multitude  of  others. 
Nothing  is  more  orna- 
mental than  beautiful 
vines.  For  arches,  trel- 
lises, and  quick  growing 
screens,  they  are  unsur- 
passed, and  it  is  aston- 
ishing that  we  should  so  often  allow  the  ugly  spots  and  cran- 
nies of  our  homes  to  stare  us  in  the  face  day  after  day  when 
a  few  seeds  thrust  into  the  ground  might  transform  them  into 
scenes  of  grace  and  beauty. 

Flowers.     Of  flowers  there  is  no  end,  but  not  all  are  equally 
useful   and   appropriate   for   schoolyard   cultivation.     Among 


A  Monarch  of  the  Prairie 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


227 


those  best  adapted  to  this  purpose  should  be  mentioned  the 
peony,  which  can  be  used  most  effectively  and  which  has 
recently  become  very  popular  with  landscape  gardeners.  Plant 
perennials  chiefly,  as  they  have  the  advantage  of  requiring 
less  attention  and  work  than  annuals  and  biennials.  Tulips, 
asters,  dahlias,  chrysanthemums,  crocuses,  sweet  peas,  and 
nasturtiums  can  be  cultivated  on  any  school  ground  without 
an  unwarranted  expenditure  of  effort.  Violets,  bluebells,  wild 
pansies,  and  many  other  of  our  wild  flowers  deserve  con- 
sideration also.  Children  delight  in  flowers  and  should  have 
plenty  of  them. 

House  plants.  House  plants  the  year  round  in  a  country 
school  are  almost  an  impossibility  owing  to  the  cold  weather 
and  the  difficulty  of  keeping  up  fires,  but  some  things  can  be 
had  in  the  fall  and  spring.  Ferns  are  always  pleasing,  and 
in  the  fall  a  potted  chrysanthemum  adds  much  to  the  at- 
tractiveness of  the  room.  In  the  spring,  early  window  gar- 
dens and  indoor  vines,  as  smilax,  Wandering  Jew,  and  Ma- 
deira vines  may  be  used  most  effectively,  while  Chinese  lilies, 
jonquils,  hyacinths,  and  narcissus  will  grow  from  bulbs  in  a 
vase  of  water  and  prove  a  delight  to  all. 

Walks  and  Fences.  The  need  of  walks  about  the  country 
school  is  not  often  fully  realized.  Concrete  walks  are  not 
only  more  lasting  and  satisfactory  than  lumber  but  in  the 
long  run  are  fully  as  cheap.  ]\Iany  farmers  now  experiment 
with  the  composition  of  concrete  for  home  purposes  and  can 
often  be  induced  to  use  their  skill  for  the  benefit  of  the  school. 
A  fence  is  a  necessary  protection  for  every  schoolyard  and 
need  not  be  broken,  used  for  kindling,  or  otherwise  muti- 
lated. Heavy  woven  wire  makes  an  admirable  fence,  though 
the  virtues  of  a  barrier  to  stray  animals  and  of  a  hitching 
rack  can  be  combined  in  a  fence  made  of  two-by-six  planks 
firmly  bolted  in  place  and  neatly  painted.  In  one  country 
school    where    such    a    fence    was    constructed,    the    children 


228   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


painted  it  themselves  and  managed  to  do  a  pretty  fair  job, 
too.  In  fact,  surprising  changes  can  be  wrought  by  children 
when  they  once  undertake  a  campaign  for  beauty. 

Summer  Houses,  Arbors,  and  Arches,  A  well-rcofed  sum- 
mer house  would  often  prove  a  blessing  as  a  playroom  for 
younger  children  in  warm,  rainy  weather.  Such  a  building  may 
be  made  by  the  older  boys  with  a  few  oak  or  cedar  posts  and 
some  shingles.  Vines  planted  and  trained  over  it  will  then 
make  not  only  a  thing  of  service  but  of  beauty.  Arches,  arbors, 
lily-pools,  and  wigwams,  made  of  poles  and  wire  netting,  over- 
grown with  vines,  are  all  suggestive  to  one  interested  in  the 
improvement  of  grounds.  Landscape  education  is  largely,  and 
for  the  country  teacher  almost  wholly,  a  matter  of  suggestion. 
Watch  such  magazines  as  Country  Life  in  America  for  new 

ideas    and    helpful    sugges- 
tions. 

The  Outbuildings.  Of 
all  the  barbarous  features  of 
our  country  schools,  none 
can  compare  with  the  usual 
outbuilding.  In  some  cases, 
double  buildings  are  still 
found,  even  though  there 
may  be  a  prohibitive  state 
law  to  the  contrary.  Among 
school  officers  and  teachers 
it  is  almost  a  unanimous  de- 
cision that  no  other  one  in- 
fluence is  more  suggestive 
of  immorality  and  vicious- 
ness  than  the  isolated  out- 
building. In  truth,  the  most 
civilizing  influence  that  could  possibly  be  procured  for  the  aver- 
age country  school  would  be  indoor  toilets.     But  much  can  be 


A  Disgrace  to  the  Community 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


229 


done  that  is  not  done  even  now.  In  the  first  place,  the  build- 
ings can  be  kept  clean,  and  with  the  necessary  boards  and  doors 
in  place.  They  can  be  cared  for  in  a  sanitary  way,  and  the 
vaults  can  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  with  lump  copperas  or 
lime  when  necessary.  The  interior  can  be  painted,  thus  cover- 
ing up  the  inscriptions  within,  and  a  board  screen  can  be  placed 
before  the  entrance,  over  which  vines  may  be  trained.  Children 
can  be  required  to  refrain  from  congregating,  in  them  and 
spending  time  in  idle  gossip,  as  they  often  do.  They  can  also 
learn  that  the  walls  are  not  to  be  used  as  blackboards  for  un- 
sightly writing  and  sketches.  All  this  is  emphasized  here  be- 
cause it  belongs  to  the  country  teacher's  problem,  and  because 
it  is  certainly  time  for  a  campaign  of  morality  regarding  this 
matter  of  outbuildings. 

II.     Socializing  the  Country  School  and  Making  It  an 
Institution  of  Community  Service 

Something  has  been  said  in  foregoing  chapters  concerning 
the  apathetic  social  relations  of  the  average  country  school  to 
its  community.  These  conditions  are  too  familiar  to  need 
lengthy  comment.  It  is  rather  the  purpose  here  to  point  out 
to  the  country  teacher  some  ways  of  handling  one  of  the 
most  difficult  and  delicate  phases  of  her  larger  problem. 

Personal  Leadership  of  the  Teacher;  Visiting  Among 
People.  The  leadership  of  the  country  teacher  has  been  dis- 
cussed in  an  earlier  chapter.  The  most  natural  beginning  in 
this  efifort  is  likely  to  come  through  the  customary  evening 
visits  in  the  homes.  All-night  visits  are  familiar  to  every 
country  teacher,  but  the  idea  of  making  these  visits  an  oppor- 
tunity for  progress  is  not  so  familiar.  By  the  wise  teacher, 
however,  the  opportunity  is  fully  appreciated.  The  farmer  is 
at  leisure  in  the  evening,  has  just  had  a  good  supper,  and  is  in  a 
receptive   frame  of  mind.     Topics  of  conversation  can  very 


230   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

easily  be  directed  to  school  matters.  Some  of  the  great  social 
movements  now  stirring  rural  life,  as  the  Grange,  the  farmers' 
institute,  and  the  agricultural  college,  may  also  be  discussed  in 
this  way  as  ordinary  matters  of  conversation  and  thus  brought 
to  people  who  possibly  know  but  little  of  their  work  and  influ- 
ence. The  benefits  of  consolidated  schools  can  be  gently 
urged  through  interesting  accounts  and  descriptions  of  such 
schools  as  the  John  Swaney  School,  described  in  this  book. 
How  much  better  is  conversation  of  this  character  than  the 
silly  and  malicious  gossip  frequently  heard.  State  and  na- 
tional bulletins,  where  not  already  well  known,  may  be  intro- 
duced during  these  visits,  too.  The  opportunity  is  one  of  no 
little  moment. 

Social  Activities  of  the  Children ;  Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs. 
Children,  like  adults,  are  social  beings  and  love  to  congregate 
and  work  together.  If  this  instinctive  tendency  is  not  recog- 
nized by  the  teacher  and  made  to  work  in  harmony  with  the 
best  interests  of  the  school,  it  will  very  likely  work  in  the 
opposite  direction  and  cause  no  little  trouble  through  cliques, 
factions,  and  petty  quarrels.  Girls'  clubs  and  boys'  clubs  are 
now  quite  common  in  country  schools.  Where  the  county 
superintendent  dignifies  this  work  by  making  it  a  county 
movement,  the  task  becomes  easy.  But  even  where  the  assist- 
ance of  the  county  superintendent  is  lacking  much  can  be  done. 
Here  is  the  story  of  how  a  girls'  club  developed  in  one  school : 

The  teacher  knew  the  value  of  organization  among  children  and 
during  one  recess  period  incidentally  mentioned  the  subject  to  a  few  of 
the  girls.  That  was  enough.  The  children  did  the  rest.  That  very 
day  a  meeting  of  all  the  girls  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  was 
called.  The  matter  was  thoroughly  discussed,  and  it  was  decided,  upon 
the  suggestion  of  the  teacher,  to  invite  all  the  young  women  of  the 
neighborhood  who  were  living  at  home  but  not  attending  school  to  join. 
This  was  done  and  not  only  those  of  the  school  district  and  immediate 
locality,  but  others,  three  and  four  miles  distant,  improved  the  oppor- 
tunity and  enrolled.     In  this  way  the  number  increased  from  eleven  to 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


231 


twenty-one.  At  the  first  meeting  the  club  was  named,  and  was  known 
henceforth  as  the  Girls'  Culture  Club,  the  word  culture  being  inserted 
because  the  primary  purpose  of  the  organization  was  to  cultivate  girls. 
The  teacher  was  the  guide,  but  a  very  companionable  one,  and 
through  her  sympathy  soon  grew  to  be  the  confidante  of  the  girls  in  a 
way  that  made  possible  many  things  otherwise  unattainable.  The  per- 
sonal growth  and  improvement  of  each  girl  was  carefully  watched  and 
guarded.  Among  the  considerations  that  received  immediate  and.  con- 
stant attention  were  the  incorrect  expressions  in  English.  Matters  of 
physical  defect  were  also  corrected.  How  many  country  boys  and  girls 
are  allowed  to  grow  into  stooped,  ungraceful  figures  just  through  the 
want  of  a  little  attention  at  the  right  time !  This  close  sympathy  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  opened  even  more  delicate  problems  and  queries 
of  young  girlhood  for  discussion.     Many  of  the  questions  of  life,  relat- 


Girls'  Club  Ready  for  the  Thanksgiving  Minuet 

ing  to  morality,  sex,  social  relationship,  health,  and  even  religion,  sub- 
jects often  sadly  neglected,  were  considered  as  experience  and  inquiry 
presented  them  for  solution. 

Definite  lines  of  education  were  pursued  also.  A  chorus  was  formed, 
and  some  very  delightful  and  happy  hours  were  spent  around  the  school 
piano,  which  the  girls  helped  to  buy.  Several  musical  programs  were 
given  by  the  club  through  the  year,  among  others  a  Christmas  cantata, 
a  folk-song  program,  and  a  spring  concert.  The  teacher  had  had  little 
musical  training,  but  several  of  the  girls  had  talent,  and  with  their 
assistance  surprising  results  were  obtained;  for  music,  like  all  other 
things,  is  largely  a  matter  of  enthusiasm.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
club,  the  girls  also  became  more  deeply  interested  in  literature,  especially 
in  general  reading,  and  finally  presented  a  few  little  plays.  Local  and 
educational  excursions,  too,  were  made  by  the  club  to  points  of  interest. 


232 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUKTRY  SCHOOL 


All  the  immediate  manufacturing  plants  were  visited  in- the  course  of 
two  years.  But  this  little  club  did  not  stop  here.  Sixty  miles  awa> 
was  a  large  city  where  Shakespearean  drama  and  good  music  could 
sometimes  be  heard,  and  hither  the  members  journeyed  one  bright 
spring  day,  to  see  something  of  the  life  of  a  real  city  and  to  attend  a 
musical  concert  and  a  good  drama. 

Good,  fresh,  wholesome  entertainment  is  much  needed  in  the  country. 
If  young  people  had  more  of  this  at  home  there  would  be  less  discon- 
tent on  the  farm,  and  less  moving  to  town.  Such  entertainment  these 
girls  provided  for  themselves  in  an  interesting  and  refined  form.  Be- 
sides little  social  gatherings  held  in  their  homes  and  at  school,  they 
had  several  girlish  frolics  at  the  schoolhouse,  always,  of  course,  under 
the  chaperonage  of  the  teacher. 

Corn  clubs  for  boys  organized  upon  a  county  basis  are 
now  common  throughout  the  corn-growing  states.  The  largest 
and  most  unusual  development  of  the  boys'  agricultural  club 
idea,  however,  has  grown  up  in  the  South  under  the  direction 
of  the  late  Dr.  S.  A.  Knapp,  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. In  this  movement  46,000  boys  are  enrolled.  Corn 
growing  is  the  medium  of  organization.  Each  boy  cultivates 
one  acre  according  to  printed  contract,  one  condition  being 
that  he  shall  do  the  work  himself.  Written  reports  and  accounts 
are  required.  With  the  favorable  climatic  conditions  of  the 
South,  marvelous  results  have  been  obtained  through  these 
clubs.  One  boy,  Jerry  ]\Ioore,  of  South  Carolhia,  in  1910 
harvested  228  bushels  and  three  pecks  of  shelled  corn  from 
his  single  acre,  thus  making  the  champion  corn  record  of  the 
world.  But  far  more  significant  than  world  championships  is 
the  splendid  manhood  toward  which  these  clubs  and  others  of 
a  similar  purpose  are  leading  the  farm  boys  of  today. 

Making  the  Schoolhouse  a  Center  for  the  Community; 
Schoolhouse  Meetings.  Schoolhouses  in  the  country  are 
used  as  much  for  public  meetings  as  elsewhere,  but  not  half 
the  good  is  thus  gained  that  might  be  derived.  If  all  the  tax- 
payers in  the  community  felt  at  home  within  the  little  school- 
house  and  made  it  a  habit  to  come  out  to  it  occasionally,  there 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


233 


would  be  less  complaint  about  the  expense  of  its  maintenance. 
This  whole  argument  of  the  place  and  relationship  of  the 
school  in  rural  life  savors  of  the  idea  that  it  should  be  made 
an  educational  dispensary  for  the  community  which  supports 
it  In  no  way  can  it  do  this  more  effectively  than  through 
evening  gatherings.  These  meetings  may  be  classified  under 
three  purposes :  those  for  entertainment,  those  for  money- 
making,  and  those  for  community  instruction  and  inspiration. 
Gatherings  for  entertainment  are  seriously  needed  in  the 
country,  where  hard  physical  labor  is  plentiful  and  recreation 
scarce.  Musical  programs  prepared  by  the  children,  little  plays 
by  the  young  people  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  even 
schoolhouse  parties  of  a 
wholesome  and  refined 
type  may  all  furnish  such 
relaxation.  School  gath- 
erings for  money-getting 
are  unfortunately  a  neces- 
sity in  most  rural  commu- 
nities— unfortunately  so, 
because  the  financial  sup- 
port of  a  school  should 
properly  be  maintained  by 


Chorus   Cast,    Peru    School,   Macon 
County,  Illinois 


\^- 


An   audience   of   one   thousand   people  at- 
tended  this  country  school  chorus 


the  people  of  the  commu- 
nity. For  a  district  to 
force  a  teacher  to  bear  the  additional  burden  of  supplying 
money  for  the  necessary  maintenance  of  the  school  is  not 
only  unjust  but  reveals  the  greed  and  closeness  of  the  district. 
^Moreover,  since  the  school  is  a  public  institution,  its  social 
and  educational  advantages  should  be  free  to  all.  The  old- 
fashioned  box  social,  or  basket-supper,  is  the  most  common 
means  of  financial  gain.  When  well  managed  in  a  good  neigh- 
borhood, the  box-supper  is  respectable,  but  too  often  it  attracts 


/ 


234 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


undesirable  visitors  from  some  neighboring  town  or  locality 
and  has  a  smirching  influence  upon  those  present,  especially  the 
children.  An  ice-cream  social  oyster  supper,  pay  entertain- 
ment, school  sale,  or  some  other  arrangement  by  which  young 
children  are  not  led  to  consider  the  question  of  pairing  off,  or  to 
hear  the  questionable  remarks  of  some  coarse  auctioneer,  is 
much  better. 

Evening  meetings  at  the  schoolhouse  purposely  designed  for 
community  inspiration  and  instruction  are  among  the  most 
worthy  and  influential  of  school  gatherings.  i\Iany  sources 
of  aid  lie  close  at  hand,  but  are  never  suspected.  Local  min- 
isters, physicians,  lawyers,  editors,  business  men,  the  county 
superintendent,  and  neighboring  teachers  will  usually  all 
respond  when  invited  to  give  a  talk  upon  some  educational 
topic  related  to  their  profession.  No  community  is  so  starved 
but  that  some  such  effort  is  possible.  But  this  is  not  the 
end.  The  farmers  and  their  wives  should  eventually  come  to 
take  an  active  part  in  these  meetings.  A  round-table  discussion 
or  a  question  box  on  some  farm  topic  is  a  good  beginning. 
Short  papers,  debates,  or  discussions  of  such  subjects  as  the 
road  problem,  the  consolidated  school,  the  silo,  improvements 
of  corn,  bread  making,  the  farm  home,  the  country  church,  and 
a  hundred  others,  will  provoke  needed  thinking  and  expres- 
sion. W^hen  the  school  has  reached  this  point,  the  community 
will  have  developed  its  own  leaders  and  may  soon  form  a 
farmers'  club  or  local  grange  to  carry  the  good  work  further, 
as  described  in  an  earher  chapter.     (See  page  88.) 

Developing  Cooperation  Between  the  Home  and  the 
School;  Parents'  Clubs.  The  much-desired  interest  and 
cooperation  of  parents  with  the  school  is  perhaps  easier  gained 
and  held  through  the  formality  of  an  organization.  For  this 
purpose,  a  parents'  association  conducted  on  much  the  same 
lines  as  the  girls'  and  boys'  club  is  a  useful  agency.  Not  that 
a  teacher  is  supposed  to  go  into  a  community  and  set  all  the 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


235 


women  "club  crazy."  This  is  a  city  evil  that  we  need  not 
imitate  in  the  country.  But  such  an  organization  as  the  one 
suggested  has  its  place  among  parents  everywhere,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  country,  where  mothers  are  busy  and  often  need 
change  and  recreation.  Meetings  should  be  held  about  once  a 
month,  and  the  chief  initiative  should  be  exercised  not  by  the 
teacher  but  by  the  parents.  Topics  of  school  and  child  wel- 
fare should  constitute  the  program. 


Play  Festival,   Harlem  Consolidated   School,  Winnebago 

County,  Illinois 

Other  Agencies  for  the  Socialization  of  the  Country 
School:  Newspapers;  Exhibits;  Educational  Excursions. 
The  wide-awake  teacher  will  not  stop  with  suggestions  given 
her  by  others,  but  will  constantly  adapt  and  seize  every  oppor- 
tunity that  presents  itself.  Every  community  affords  its  own 
individual  agencies  for  awakening  a  broader  and  better  coun- 


236   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

try  life.  Those  given  here  are  simply  suggestive.  But  a 
means  practically  always  at  the  disposal  of  the  ambitious 
teacher  is  the  local  newspaper.  If  the  teacher  is  an  original 
thinker  and  can  occasionally  write  a  few  statements  concern- 
ing local  conditions,  it  will  be  best,  but  quoted  articles  on  coun- 
try life  subjects  from  books  and  periodicals  are  effective 
when  given  particular  comment.  Local  school  items  prepared 
by  the  children  prove  interesting  at  home  and  furnish  a  good 
aim  for  written  school  work.  Besides  this,  the  bulletins  of 
the  state  university  or  of  the  state  department  of  education, 
relating  to  the  improvement  of  farm  life,  should  reach  every 
family  through  the  efforts  of  the  local  school. 

Well  prepared  exhibits  of  the  children's  work  are  also  help- 
ful. These  stimulate  pride  and  increased  effort  in  both  chil- 
dren and  parents,  but  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that 
they  do  not  become  mere  displays  and  their  occasion  an  attempt 
to  show  off.  Traveling  art  exhibits  may  be  had,  too.  The 
Horace  K.  Turner  Company,  of  Boston,  Massachusetts,  and 
the  A.  W.  Elson  Picture  Company,  also  of  Boston,  now^  make 
special  arrangements  with  schools  by  which  mounted  exhibits 
of  pictures  are  sent  out  for  study.  A  letter  of  incjuiry  to  either 
company  will  bring  all  the  details  of  agreement  necessary  to 
procure  such  an  exhil^it  for  a  week.  Three  or  four  country 
schools  together  will  find  it  quite  possible  to  get  one  of  these 
exhibits. 

Educational  excursions,  including  both  local  and  distant 
railway  excursions,  constitute  another  means  of  school  social- 
ization. It  is  surprising  how  little  is  known  by  children,  par- 
ticularly by  country  children,  concerning  matters  outside  their 
immediate  environment.  Foundries,  flour  mills,  elevators, 
machine  shops,  potteries,  brick  yards,  schools,  court  rooms, 
and  churches,  are  all  accessible  and  educationally  more  profit- 
able than  the  amount  of  ordinary  school  work  neglected  for 
their  inspection.     Of  course  rigid  supervision  must  be  exer- 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


237 


cised  over  children  during  these  visits  and  it  is  usually  safest 
to  take  only  the  larger  ones,  but  with  due  care  there  is  prac- 
tically no  danger.  Railway  excursions  to  neighboring  cities 
or  points  of  interest  are  often  possible,  and  county  educational 
excursions  to  the  state  university  or  college  of  agriculture  are 
now  quite  common.  The  visions  and  larger  appreciation  given 
to  country  children  in  this  way  can  scarcely  be  estimated. 
Although  the  latter  undertaking  is  best  managed  by  either 


Agricultural  College  Excursion,  Edgar  County,  Illinois 

the  county  superintendent  or  the  farmers'  institute,  an  ener- 
getic teacher  can  play  some  part  through  suggestion  and  co- 
operation in  bringing  it  to  pass. 

A  Country  Life  Club  the  Best  Social  Organization  for 
the  Country  School.  It  is  not  implied  here  that  the  various 
methods  given  above  for  socializing  country  schools  should  all 
be  undertaken  in  one  school.  The  old  adage  concerning  "too 
many  irons  in  the  fire"  applies  in  this  situation  as  elsewhere. 


238   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Each  teacher  should  start  the  one,  two,  or  three  organizations 
that  seem  best  adapted  to  her  school,  and  carry  these  to  suc- 
cess. In  general,  the  best  organization  to  develop  is  a  Country 
Life  Club.  This  club  should  be  composed  of  all  persons  in 
the  district  and  should  meet  fortnightly  or  monthly  at  the 
schoolhouse.  Its  machinery  should  be  simple,  its  officers  few, 
and  the  programs,  for  the  most  part,  should  consist  of  discus- 
sions of  country  life  topics  by  the  members.  The  advantages 
of  the  country  life  club  over  other  social  organizations  are 
self-evident.  In  the  first  place,  it  unites  the  whole  community, 
both  old  and  young,  in  one  organization.  This,  as  already 
shown  in  earlier  chapters,  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  In 
the  second  place,  such  a  club,  from  its  name,  may  legiti- 
mately consider  any  or  all  phases  of  country  life.  This  makes 
it  possible  for  the  teacher  to  use  a  single  organization  in  intro- 
ducing discussion  and  reform  on  any  question  of  school  or 
community  welfare.  For  these  reasons  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
an  active  country  life  club  in  every  district  school  would  prac- 
tically solve  "the  rural  problem."  ^ 

Cooperation  of  the  School  with  Other  Community  Institu- 
tions and  Agencies.  Another  significant  method  of  socializing 
the  country  school  in  addition  to  w^hat  may  be  done  within  the 
institution  itself  as  already  set  forth,  is  through  its  cooperation 
with  other  community  agencies.  In  every  efifort  at  progress 
the  various  institutions  of  the  rural  community  should  cooper- 
ate. This  is  not  only  more  effective  but  is  essential  to  peace 
and  happiness.  Some  ways  through  which  the  teacher  may 
help  to  induce  such  cooperation  between  the  school  and  the 
home,  church,  Grange,  farmers'  institute,  and  road  organiza- 
tion are  discussed  in  the  conclusions  of  chapters  two,  three, 
four,  five,  and  six  of  this  book. 

1  For  a  bulletin  giving  details  and  method  of  procedure  in  organizing 
clubs  of  this  type  address  the  Country  School  Department  of  the 
Illinois  State  Normal  University  at  Normal,  Illinois. 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


239 


III.     Vitalizing    and    Enriching    the    Country    School 

Course  of  Study 

There  is  now  a  rather  general  impressio-n  that  this  whole 
task  of  regenerating  the  country  school  can  be  settled  by  the 
introduction  of  a  little  formal  ^'agriculture."  In  the  staid 
bookish  way  in  which  this  is  frequently  done  nothing  could  be 
farther  from  the  real  issue.  What  is  needed,  in  fact,  is  not 
so  much  new  courses  in  the  country  school  curriculum  as  a 
new  point  of  view  and  a  new  approach  upon  old  courses. 
Take  the  subject  of  beginning  reading,  for  example.  Here  are 
the  little  six-year-olds  steeped  in  farm  experiences.  They 
know  all  about  horses,  cows,  calves,  colts,  and  other  farm 
things.  They  have  followed  their  father  in  the  field  and  their 
mother  in  the  garden.  They  know  real  life.  Why,  then,  blot 
out  all  these  valuable  experiences  on  the  very  threshold  of  the 
schoolroom  by  forcing  from  them  such  perjurious  declarations 
as  "I  see  the  ball,"  "I  see  an  apple,"  and  "I  like  my  book"  ? 

This  redirection  of  the 
country  school  is  a  matter 
of  fundamental  educa- 
tional philosophy,  not  of 
making  farmers  or  of 
holding  country  children 
upon  the  land,  as  is  often 
argued.  The  latter  is  de- 
sirable to  a  certain  degree, 
and  it  is  also  true  that 
while  "it  is  not  desirable 
to  try  to  make  farmers, 
it  seems  advisable  to  stop 

unmaking  them/'  But  neither  the  making  nor  the  unmak- 
ing of  farmers  touches  the  quick  of  the  country  school 
problem  educationally.     To  make  this  point  a  little  clearer, 


Practical  Arithmetic 


240   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

consider  the  teaching  of  agriculture  in  country  schools.  The 
common  reason  advanced  for  "introducing"  this  work  is 
that  it  will  "keep  the  boys  on  the  farm."  But  educationally, 
agriculture  should  need  no  introduction.  In  its  broad  sense  as 
daily  farm-life  experience  it  should  be  the  backbone  of  every- 
thing in  the  whole  school  course,  the  common  stock  from 
which  other  studies  spring.  Arithmetic,  reading,  geography, 
and  all  other  subjects,  though  not  limited  by  it,  should  origi- 
nate from  it  and  maintain  direct  connection  with  it.  Agricul- 
ture should  be  taught,  in  other  words,  because  it  is  the  basic 
experience  of  country  children,  and  all  real  teaching  builds 
upon  past  experience,  leading,  in  the  familiar  phrase,  "from 
the  known  to  the  unknown."  Thus  nothing  else  can  be  prop- 
erlv  taught  in  the  country  school  except  through  agriculture, 
that  is,  through  the  native  home-life,  or  farm  experience,  of 
the  children. 

The  Redirection  of  Old  Subject-Matter.  The  fuller 
meaning  of  some  of  these  general  statements  can  be  best 
explained  perhaps  by  a  suggestive  account  of  how  one  coun- 
try teacher  met  actual  conditions  and  attempted  to  vitalize  the 
work  of  an  average  rural  school. 

To  prevent  community  antagonism  and  for  pedagogical  rea- 
sons she  began  with  the  conventional  branches  of  the  curricu- 
lum, first  carefully  culling  the  traditional  dead  matter  from 
each  subject  and  attempting  to  impart  a  country  school  twist 
to  what  remained.  This  tzvist  consisted  chiefly  in  a  new 
method  of  approach  and  a  new  application.  The  arithmetic 
retained  its  mathematical  sequence,  but  became  the  arithmetic 
.of  the  farm,  not  that  of  Wall  Street.  The  time  often  spent 
on  partial  payments,  compound  interest,  and  cube  root  was 
used  for  the  solution  of  original  problems  suggested  by  the 
corn  crop,  the  feeding  and  shipping  of  cattle,  the  draining  and 
fertilizing  of  fields,  gardening,  fruit  raising,  and  farm  sales. 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  241 

Through  problems  of  this  type/  percentage,  interest,  book- 
keeping, and  even  bank  discount,  came  to  have  a  new  mean- 
ing. Down  the  road  from  the  schoolhouse  a  farmer  was  build- 
ing a  sheepfold.  This  proved  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
introducing  lumber  measure  and  getting  some  first-hand  expe- 
rience concerning  it.  Similar  opportunities  were  discovered 
on  every  side,  and  will  be  revealed  to  any  teacher,  who  once 
gets  the  new  point  of  view.  The  country  community  teems 
with  them. 

In  the  same  school  the  beginning  work  in  first  grade  read- 
ing was  based  upon  a  miniature  sand-table  farm,  whose  plan- 
ning and  construction  enabled  the  children  to  talk  and  read  in 
terms  of  their  farm  home  experience.  The  fields  and  lots  of 
this  play  farm  were  first  fenced  in ;  the  house,  barn,  and  vari- 
ous buildings  then  constructed  of  paper ;  and  finally  the  fam- 
ily— miniature  dolls,  dressed  for  their  respective  parts,  and 
the  stock — paper  creatures  cut  free-hand  or  from  catalogs  and 
farm  journals — all  moved  in.  Each  child  took  care  to  have  his 
own  home  pets  represented  among  the  common  herds,  and  the 
whole  undertaking  became  the  source  of  clear  and  absorbing 
reading  lessons  on  both  blackboard  and  chart. 

Geography,  too,  felt  the  quickening  influence  of  this  new 
interpretation.  Local  weather  conditions,  landscape  features, 
soil,  wind,  drainage,  and  the  question  of  roads  and  transporta- 
tion were  soon  seen  to  have  the  closest  relationship  to  this 
subject  which  had  formerly  been  regarded  as  confined  between 
the  covers  of  the  text.  Literature  and  composition  profited  by 
the  same  treatment.  The  larger  boys,  fresh  from  the  stern 
realities  of  corn-husking,  did  not  notice  the  drudgery  of  learn- 
ing correct  letter  forms  when  writing  to  the  Department  of 

1  For  sets  of  such  problems  see  Elementary  Agriculture  by  Hatch 
and  Haselwood,  published  by  Row,  Peterson  and  Co.,  Chicago,  at  50 
cents,  and  The  Corn  Lady  by  Jessie  Field,  published  by  A.  Flanagan 
Co.,  Chicago.     Price  60  cents. 


242   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Agriculture  for  desired  bulletins,  fully  realizing,  as  one  boy 
put  it,  that  "a.  fellow  has  to  get  a  letter  up  in  shape  if  he's 
going  to  scud  it  off."  Class  debates  and  papers  on  road- 
dragging,  burning  corn-stalks,  moving  to  town,  chores,  the 
raising  of  a  corn  crop,  and  the  right  kind  of  country  school, 
did  not  seem  to  be  particularly  hard  or  foreign,  either.  In  the 
reading  lessons  the  good  times  of  Whittier's  Suozvbound  and 
the  story  of  ''that  boy  in  Wordsworth's  Michael  who  left 
home,"  as  well  as  numerous  nature  poems,  all  made  a  direct 
appeal  to  these  boys  and  girls  who  saw  their  counterpart  in 
actual  life  every  day.  Even  in  drawing  the  interest  was 
enhanced  and  the  common  things  of  farm  life  were  newly 
revealed  when  the  teacher  took  the  classes  out  of  doors  to 
observe  the  remarkable  color  masses  of  the  distant  woods  and 
young  grain,  or  asked  each  member  of  the  class  to  study  the 
sunset  before  tomorrow,  as  it  would  be  the  subject  for  the  next 
painting  lesson.  ^lusic,  too,  was  a  new  delight  when  some 
of  the  songs  were  about  "the  lark  that  sings  at  Heaven's 
gate,"  or  "the  violets  that  budded  today,"  or  the  farmer  who 
raises  wheat  for  bread,  "so  that  all  the  hungry  with  it  may 
be  fed." 

The  Introduction  of  New  Courses.  But  this  revised 
teaching  of  old  courses,  while  fundamental  in  the  redirection 
of  the  country  school,  is  not  adequate.  Industrial  develop- 
ment in  the  rural  community  has  far  outgrown  the  limited 
school  curriculum,  and  to  bridge  this  chasm  new  courses  are 
needed,  especially  agriculture,  home  science,  and  manual  train- 
ing. In  outlining  these  courses  in  the  school  whose  story  is 
partially  narrated  here  it  was  necessary  to  make  a  study  of 
the  life,  industry,  and  homes  of  the  people ;  to  see  what  they 
needed,  and  then  incorporate  these  things  into  the  course  of 
study.  The  teacher  referred  to  in  this  tale,  like  many  others, 
had  had  no  special  preparation  in  either  agriculture  or  house- 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


243 


hold  science,  but,  being  inspired  with  a  new  vision  of  country 
school  service,  she  determined  to  do  what  she  could. 

Some  points  of  the  first  work  in  agriculture  illustrate  the 
development  of  this  idea.  The  course  was  begun  early  in  the 
spring  by  a  brief  study  of  soils.  This  was  followed  by  the 
study  of  seedlings  and  plants  and  the  necessity  for  crop 
rotation  and  soil  fertilization.  By  this  time  corn  was  being 
planted,  and  this  called  forth  a  discussion  of  plowing,  the 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  and  the  influence  and  care  of 
farm  machinery.  Soon  the  corn  was  through  the  ground,  but 
no  sooner  had  it  appeared  than  the  cut-worm  came  also.  Here 
was  a  subject  in  which  the  whole  community  felt  the  keenest 


A  Sand-table  Farm 

interest.  The  cut-worm,  therefore,  became  the  special  object 
of  study  in  the  agriculture  class  for  several  days.  Bulletins 
were  procured,  and  enough  of  the  life  history  of  the  insect 
was  worked  out  to  suggest  the  best  time  of  attack  in  its 
control. 

In  the  meanwhile,  corn  had  been  grown  in  the  school  gar- 
den, which  was  now  used  as  a  testing  plot  for  trying  out 
the  various  cut-worm  remedies  recommended  in  books  and 
bulletins  on  agriculture.     In  this  testing  plot  the  whole  com- 


^44   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

munity  became  interested.  Church-goers  stopped  on  Sunday 
to  investigate  it,  and  farmers  of  the  neighborhood  paid  it  fre- 
quent visits,  even  coming  inside  the  schoolhouse  in  their 
working  clothes,  upon  several  occasions,  to  listen  to  the  reci- 
tations of  the  class  in  agriculture.  Following  this  the  feeding, 
and  care  of  dairy  cows  was  discussed.  A  Babcock  test  was 
procured,  and  the  milk  of  the  various  cows  kept  for  dairy  pur- 
poses in  the  neighborhood  was  tested,  with  the  result  that 
about  one-half  were  found  to  be  poor  investments,  while  sev- 
eral were  not  paying  for  their  keep. 

The  domestic  science  course  in  the  same  school  illustrates 
the  close  connection  between  the  needs  of  the  community  and 
the  school,  even  better,  perhaps,  than  the  work  in  agriculture 
just  described.  In  her  nightly  visits  in  the  neighborhood,  the 
teacher  found  that  children  slept  in  rooms  with  a  lamp  turned 
low  all  night,  and  with  windows  closed  or  but  slightly  raised. 
She  noticed  that  some  of  the  homes  were  crudely  decorated 
with  gaudy  wall  paper,  tissue-paper  flowers,  and  cheap  lace 
curtains  and  carpets.  She  observed,  too,  that  several  of  the 
girls  were  unattractively  dressed,  and  this  only  because  their 
garments  were  poorly  fitted  and  unbecomingly  made.  Having 
observed  these  things,  she  set  to  work  to  make  a  course  of 
study  for  her  particular  children,  dealing  with  these  particular 
conditions.  This  course  included,  among  other  things,  some 
discussion  of  the  more  common  principles  of  diet,  the  proper 
way  of  serving  a  plain  home  meal,  the  necessity  and  benefit  of 
plenty  of  fresh  air,  and  the  planning,  selection,  cutting,  and 
fitting  of  simple  school  dresses. 

Later,  the  planning,  construction,  decoration,  and  furnish- 
ing of  a  modern  country  home  was  developed.  In  working 
out  this  phase  of  the  course,  the  girls  did  much  reading,  talked 
with  contractors,  investigated  lighting  and  plumbing  systems, 
visited  furniture  stores,  and  were  shown  through  a  modern, 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


245 


well-planned  house  in  the  town  near  ty.  The  ideal  thus  estab- 
lished served  as  a  good  standard  for  later  work.  The  improve- 
ment and  remodeling  of  existing  homes  in  the  community  was 
then  taken  up.  Each  member  of  the  class  made  a  plan  of 
her  house  as  it  was  and  a  second  plan  showing  how  labor- 
saving  improvements  and  changes  might  be  made.  Remodeled 
furnishing,  sanitation,  and  decoration  were  considered  in 
detail.  Throughout  this  work,  in  spite  of  early  fears,  the 
heartiest  support  was  given  from  the  mothers  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, and  its  practical  influence  soon  became  noticeable  in 
various  homes. 

Elementary  Rural  Sociology  in  the  Country  School.  The 
teacher  of  this  school  had  another  idea  along  the  line  of  a 
vitalized  course  of  study. 
This  referred  to  the  study 
of  elementary  rural  sociol- 
ogy, or  country  life  con- 
ditions, in  the  country 
school.  She  knew  of  uni- 
versities and  colleges  of 
agriculture  where  students 
were  given  an  opportunity 
to  consider  some  of  the 
social  and  economic  prob- 
lems confronting  Ameri- 
can farmers  today.  Then 
came  the  idea  of  bringing  these  matters  before  the  older  boys 
and  girls  of  her  country  school,  the  majority  of  whom  would 
remain  in  the  home  neighborhood  and  have  these  very  prob- 
lems to  solve.  Groping  desperately  for  organization  and  con- 
venient reference  material,  she  eventually  worked  out  a  sim- 
plitied  course  based  upon  the  experience  of  the  children  that 
might  be  given  in  any  country  school.     Such  a  course  will  be 


Country  School  Gardening  in 
Massachusetts 


246   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

found  an  excellent  means 'for  developing  a  higher  idealism  of 
country  life/ 

The  suggestions  of  this  narration  are  but  faint  glimmer- 
ings of  the  light  that  is  soon  to  fall  upon  rural  education. 
The  country  school  of  the  future  will  reflect  the  life  of  the 
farm  and  the  needs  of  the  open  country,  both  educational  and 
social.  It  will  teach  farmers  and  farm  children  to  live  and  to 
live  fully  and  richly.  In  procedure,  it  will  no  longer  put  the 
cart  before  the  horse,  but  will  turn  things  squarely  about  and 
make  agriculture,  manual  arts,  and  home  science,  which  are 
now  regarded  as  accessories,  the  very  fundamentals  of  the 
curriculum.  To  these,  and  to  the  great  question  of  living  well, 
it  will  relate  all  else.  Arithmetic,  reading,  language,  and  other 
conventional  subjects  will  then  be  seen  to  grow  out  of,  and 
spring  naturally  from  this  common  source  of  basic  need  and 
experience,  and  \\\\\  be  understood  not  as  ends  in  themselves 
but  as  tools  to  a  higher  end.  And  in  this  day,  it  may  be  added, 
there  will  be  less  dissatisfaction  with  country  life,  less  moving 
to  town,  and  a  new  understanding  of  what  is  meant  by  a 
country  school. 

IV.     Improving  the  Administration  of  the  School  and 

Teaching  the  Necessity  of  a  Change  of  System, 

OR  Consolidation,  for  Country  Schools 

To  some  readers  the  emphasis  placed  here  upon  the  sys- 
tematic education  of  country  communities  toward  consolidation 
as  a  fourth  point  of  attack  in  the  solution  of  the  country  teach- 
er's problem  may  seem  unwarranted.  But  the  awkward,  out- 
grown machinery  of  school  organization  under  which  country 
teachers  are  now  forced  to  expend  their  effort  simply  must  give 
way  to  a  more  thorough  and  efficient  system  before  anything 
permanently  effective  can  be  done  for  country  schools.     By 

^  For  an  outline  of  diis  course  address  the  Country  School  Depart- 
ment of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University  at  Normal. 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


247 


this  it  is  not  assumed  that  a  graded  rural  system,  when  once 
installed,  will  run  itself  without  further  effort.  The  consoli- 
dated school  will  require  just  as  much  money  and  just  as 
much  attention  and  cooperation,  to  insure  success,  as  any 
school.  It  is  maintained  only  that  the  graded  system  does 
away  with  the  hopeless  defects  of  the  one-teacher  school  and 


The  Harvest — Training   School — Children  of  the  Western  Illinois 

State  Normal  School 


provides  a  foundation  upon  which  it  is  possible  to  build  with 
some  adequate  degree  of  success.  And  by  the  graded  system 
is  meant  here,  let  it  be  understood,  a  graded  country  school ; 
not  an  imitation  of  the  average  city  system  of  mechanical 
formality.  For  these  reasons  the  deliberate,  purposeful  instruc- 
tion of  a  community  toward  this  end  is  a  service  worthy  the 
integrity  and  energy  of  every  country  teacher. 


248   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

The  Beginning  of  a  Consolidation  Campaign.^  No  stere- 
otyped method  for  such  a  campaign  can  be  given.  It  is  but 
the  intention  here  to  offer  some  suggestions  that  may  be  useful 
to  wide-awake  teachers  who  have  mettle  enough  to  enter  the 
arena  in  this  just  and  righteous  cause  against  the  unfair  treat- 
ment of  country  children.  What  works  well  in  one  commu- 
nity, or  in  the  hands  of  one  teacher,  may  fail  utterly  with 
others.  Each  teacher  must  study  local  conditions  carefully 
and  apply  the  specific  measures  recommended  by  a  careful 
judgment.  Everything  tending  toward  an  educational  awaken- 
ing furthers  the  interest  in  consolidation,  for  to  realize  the 
latent  possibilities  of  farm  life  and  rural  education  is  to 
become  a  thorough  convert  to  the  efficiency  of  the  consoli- 
dated school. 

Visiting  in  the  homes  offers  the  first  and  most  direct  oppor- 
tunity for  the  stimulation  of  an  interest  in  this  matter  of 
consolidation.  Make  the  first  discussions  merely  a  matter 
of  enhghtenment,  not  of  aggressive  argument.  Describe  con- 
solidated schools  as  a  new  departure,  of  which  you  have 
recently  been  reading.  Give  vivid  descriptions  of  such  schools 
as  the  John  Swaney  School  of  IlHnois,  and  some  of  the  best 
types  in  Indiana  and  elsewhere.  Carry  with  you  books,  pic- 
tures, and  literature  descriptive  of  these  schools.  Write  to 
your  state  department  of  education  or  to  the  state  agricultural 
college  for  consolidation  bulletins.  These  will  be  sent  to  any 
address  in  large  numbers  if  an  explanation  and  an  offer  to 
pay  express  accompanies  the  request.  Other  bulletins  are 
listed  in  the  bibliography  of  this  book.  Leave  a  marked  bulle- 
tin or  two  of  this  character  with  each  family  and  it  will  usually 
be  read.  In  this  way  general  information  on  the  subject  can 
be  brought  into  each  home  with  little  effort  and  without  heated 
antagonism. 

^  A  special  bulletin  upon  this  subject  may  be  procured  from  the 
Illinois  State  Normal  University  at  Normal,  Illinois. 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM  249 

General  Educational  Campaigns.  Follow  this  house-to- 
house  canvass  by  a  series  of  educational  meetings  and  dis- 
cussions at  the  schoolhouse  or  elsewhere,  revealing  the  defi- 
ciencies of  the  present  system,  and  showing  something  of  the 
educational  ideal  to  be  attained.  Talks  on  manual  training, 
agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  all  other  topics  relating  to 
the  improvement  of  the  local  school,  can  be  quietly  made  to 
em^phasize  the  great  necessity  for  a  change  of  system.  Get- 
ting such  lectures  for  the  little  isolated  schoolhouse  is  some- 
thing of  a  problem,  but  an  earnest  teacher  will  not  despair  for 
this  reason.  Call  first  upon  the  energy  of  your  county  super- 
intendent. After  this  try  to  enlist  the  aid  of  some  ambi- 
tious young  educator  in  a  neighboring  school  or  town.  If 
formerly  connected,  through  summer  schools,  or  in  some  other 
way,  with  a  state  or  county  normal  school — and  every  teacher 
should  have  such  connections — write  to  normal  school  instruct- 
ors for  aid.  As  a  last  resort,  gather  up  your  courage,  arrange 
your  thoughts  connectedly,  and  face  your  little  audience  on 
the  home  ground  yourself.  There  should  be  nothing  startling 
in  this  suggestion  to  one  who  teaches  every  day.  In  the 
golden  age  of  rural  school  prosperity  there  will  probably 
be  some  agency  whose  especial  duty  it  is  to  conduct  campaigns 
of  this  sort.  Country  school  extension  is  a  new  term,  but  a 
very  practical  idea.  Some  normal  schools  are  in  fact  even 
now  beginning  to  organize  such  work. 

Township  or  Community  Organization.  Teachers  who 
expect  to  succeed  in  an  effort  of  this  kind  must  manifest 
eternal  vigilance  and  keep  their  eyes  open  for  every  opportu- 
nity that  presents  itself.  The  chief  point  to  be  gained  in  a 
campaign  for  the  consolidation  of  schools  is  a  feeling  of  co- 
operation and  a  broader  and  closer  community  relationship.  For 
this  purpose  some  educational  organization,  as  a  country  life 
club  or  a  parent-teacher  club  in  the  township  or  territory  to 
be  considered,  is  very  helpful.     Township  exhibits,  rallies,  or 


250   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

entertainments,  in  which  the  children  of  individual  schools  par- 
ticipate, have  also  been  handled  for  this  purpose  with  marked 
success. 

Outspoken  Consolidation  Campaigns.  By  this  time  a 
definite  outspoken  consolidation  campaign  may  be  under- 
taken. One  of  the  most  profitable  things  that  can  be  done  now 
is  to  have  a  good  lecture  on  consolidated  schools  illustrated 
with  a  stereopticon.  A  letter  of  inquiry  to  the  nearest  state  nor- 
mal school  in  any  state  will  suggest  sources  of  assistance  for 
this  purpose.  Interesting  mass  meetings,  question  boxes,  dis- 
cussions, and  debates  on  the  subject  have  also  been  held  in  the 
winter  evenings  at  some  schoolhouses,  with  the  desired  efifect. 
The  object  is  simply  to  get  the  whole  community  vitally  alive 
to  the  benefits  and  necessity  of  a  change  in  the  present  order 
of  things.  A  small  committee  of  the  leading  enthusiastic  citi- 
zens, who  will  take  upon  themselves  the  responsibility  of  plan- 
ning meetings,  scattering  literature,  and  the  general  campaign- 
ing, has  often  rendered  good  service  in  this  connection.  A 
chart  of  statistical  data  worked  out  on  a  piece  of  oilcloth  and 
hung  upon  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom,  where  all  present  at 
meetings  may  see  it  and  draw  their  own  conclusions,  is  valu- 
able also.  Data  for  this  chart  covering  the  school  census, 
length  of  term,  teachers'  salaries,  total  cost,  cost  per  capita, 
assessed  valuation  of  property,  amount  certified,  tax  rate,  and 
any  other  information  whose  consideration  adds  to  the  weight 
of  the  argument  for  consolidating,  may  be  obtained  from 
the  county  clerk's  office.  ^lake  also  a  map  of  the  territory 
under  consideration  after  a  similar  fashion,  on  which  houses, 
existing  schools,  and  the  central  school  may  be  located,  and 
possible  transportation  routes  traced. 

All  teachers,  especially  country  teachers,  should  be  familiar 
with  the  chief  points  of  school  law  in  their  respective  states. 
In  some  states,  this  change  to  consolidation  is  a  comparatively 
easy  and  simple  process.    In  others,  it  is  difficult  and  compli- 


THE  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  PROBLEM 


251 


cated.  The  state  of  Dlinois,  for  example,  is  in  this  latter  class. 
Practically  no  legislative  provisions  have  so  far  been  made 
here  bearing  upon  the  consolidation  of  rural  schools.  The 
time  now  seems  close  at  hand,  however,  when  some  definite 
action  may  be  accomplished.     In  the  meantime  let  country 


Play-day  Masque,  Illinois  State  Normal  University 


teachers,  farmers,  educators,  and  agriculturists,  here  and  in 
other  states  so  handicapped,  continue  a  never-ceasing,  ham- 
mering campaign  until  the  thousands  of  country  children 
affected  by  the  present  limited  educational  opportunity  are 
freed  from  this  greatest  injustice  of  our  school  system. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 

The  Need  for  Properly  Prepared  Country  Teachers.     The 

whole  rural  problem,  as  pointed  out  in  former  chapters,  is 
practically  the  problem  of  the  country  school.  (See  pp.  14,  17, 
1 35-)  Farming  will  hold  its  own  against  the  call  of  town 
and  city  only  when  country  life  becomes  as  satisfying  as  that 
of  the  town.  And  this  is  clearly  a  question  of  school  control, 
since  the  idealism  and  ability  necessary  to  make  country 
life  satisfying  are  but  matters  of  training  for  which  the  dis- 
trict school,  as  the  local  agency  of  rural  education,  should 
stand  chiefly  responsible.  When  country  schools  become 
effective  centers  of  learning,  instructing  both  children  and 
adults  in  terms  of  country  life  and  pointing  the  way  to  com- 
munity prosperity  and  welfare,  moving  to  town  will  decrease 
among  farmers,  and  ''the  rural  problem"  will  be  near  solution. 

The  greatest  single  need  for  the  improvement  of  country 
life  at  the  present  time,  therefore,  is  for  a  corps  of  properly 
prepared  country  teachers  who  will  enter  our  existing  country 
schools  and,  through  vitalised  teaching  and  tactful  social  lead- 
ership, convert  them  into  living  centers  for  the  instruction  of 
both  children  and  adidts  and  the  complete  upbuilding  of  coun- 
try community  life. 

Necessity  for  the  Special  Training  of  Country  Teachers. 
Notwithstanding  the  necessity  for  properly  prepared  country 
teachers,  but  little  specific  attention  has  thus  far  been  given  to 
the  question  of  their  training.  Out  of  a  total  of  almost  two 
hundred  state  normal  schools  in  the  United  States,  less  than 

252 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS  253 

a  dozen  are  making  special  effort  to  meet  the  new  demands 
now  being  laid  upon  country  teachers.  Prominent  in  this 
small  group  may  be  cited  the  normal  schools  at  Kalamazoo, 
Michigan;  Cheney,  Washington;  Kirksville,  Missouri;  La- 
Crosse,  Wisconsin;  Lewiston,  Idaho;  and  at  Macomb  and 
Normal,  Illinois,  all  of  which  now  have  special  departments 
for  this  purpose. 

A  chief  cause  for  this  neglect  on  the  part  of  normal  schools 
has  been  the  belief  in  normal  school  circles  that  no  special 
training  is  necessary  for  country  teaching.  It  is  even  com- 
monly argued  that  a  good- teacher  will  teach  any  school  well 
and  there  should  be  no  differentiation.  To  this  view  leaders  of 
country  life  take  strong  exception.  The  general  normal  school 
training  supposed  to  answer  all  requirements  for  country 
teachers  is  conceded  to  be  very  helpful,  but  it  is  usually 
planned  with  reference  to  the  needs  and  conditions  of  city 
teachers  and  city  schools.  It  takes  little  account,  even  when 
meaning  to  do  so,  of  the  baffling  conditions  of  the  country 
school.  It  neglects  not  only  the  peculiar  problems  of  country 
school  organization,  management,  and  teaching,  but  especially 
those  of  rural  community  welfare  and  social  relationship.  The 
well-trained  country  teacher  needs  a  deep  appreciative  insight 
into  the  problems  of  country  life,  and  an  exalted  faith  in  its 
innate  beauty  and  final  triumph,  which  she  cannot  get  from 
this  general  training.  When  kindergartners,  primary,  and 
secondary  teachers,  and  various  teachers  in  different  subjects, 
are  offered  special  training,  what  argument  can  hold  against 
the  special  training  of  country  teachers?  Certainly  not  a 
lack  of  need  either  on  the  part  of  the  rural  teaching  force 
or  on  the  part  of  society  for  efficient  country  life  leaders. 

At  least  three  basic  reasons  may  be  offered  in  advocating  the 
special  training  of  country  teachers:  i.  The  peculiarities  of 
the  ungraded  school  system  afford  numerous  characteristic 
difficulties   in   the   way  of   management,   administration,   and 


254 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


teaching.  Consider,  for  example,  the  difference  in  making 
a  program  for  a  one-class  graded  school  and  a  five-to-eight- 
class  country  school.  2.  The  adaptation  of  subject-matter  to 
the  experience  of  country  children  requires  special  attention. 
Arithmetic  is  arithmetic  everywhere,  but  its  best  teaching 
demands  the  use  of  the  local  environment,  which  on  the  part  of 
the  country  teacher  calls  for  a  careful  pedagogical  study  of 
the  rural  community.  3.  The  sociological  conditions  of  the 
country  differ  from  those  of  the  city  and  demand  special 
study  on  the  part  of  teachers  who  are  to  work  in  rural  locali- 
ties. This  is  an  invariable  argument  and  one  of  particular 
significance. 

Kind  of  Special  Training  Needed  by  Country  Teachers. 
Perhaps  there  would  be  less  antagonism  to  this  general  thesis 
if  those  who  oppose  it  had  more  carefully  thought  out  the 
kmd  of  training  to  be  offered  for  country  teachers.  This 
preparation  should  consist  of  both  general  and  special  instruc- 
tion. By  general  training  is  meant  here  all  the  scholarship  and 
professional  study  necessary  for  any  teacher.  In  these  lines, 
in  an  ideal  situation,  the  country  teacher,  who  has  all  ages  of 
children  to  instruct,  should,  if  anything,  be  even  better  versed 
than  the  grade  teacher.  Special  training  for  country  teachers 
should  be  of  two  kinds : 

First,  that  of  a  rural  pedagogical  type,  relating  to  the  special 
problems  of  country  school  management  and  instruction,  espe- 
cially to  those  problems  imposed  by  the  peculiar  conditions 
of  the  present  ungraded  country  school  system.  This  training 
should  include  much  agriculture  and  household  science,  reveal- 
ing to  the  prospective  country  teacher  how  these  subjects  form 
the  backbone  of  the  redirected  country  school.  But  agricul- 
ture alone  does  not  afford,  as  some  seem  to  think,  all  that  is 
needed  in  the  way  of  special  preparation  for  country  teaching. 

Second,  that  of  a  sociological  nature,  preparing  for  rural 
leadership.    This  training  should  give  teachers  an  insight  into 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


255 


country  life  in  its  broadest  social  aspects  and  relationships.  It 
should  impress  upon  them  the  place  of  the  school  as  a  socializ- 
ing agency  in  present  farm  life,  the  unlimited  opportunity 
of  the  well-prepared  country  teacher,  and  the  necessity  of 
changes  in  the  rural  educational  system.     Above  all  else,  it 


Teachers'  Training  School,  Dunn  County,  Wisconsin 


should  inspire  them  with  a  high  ideal  of  the  possibilities  and 
beauty  of  the  country  and  should  give  them  courage  and  faith 
to  work  steadfastly  towards  this  ideal.  It  should,  in  other 
words,  fill  them  with  a  new  vision  of  country  life  and  country 


teaching. 


Special   Training   Now   Offered   for    Country   Teachers: 
In  High  Schools.     Special  preparation  for  country  teachers 


256   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

is  now  being  offered  through  three  agencies :  the  state-aided 
high  school,  the  county  normal  school  or  training  class,  and 
the  state  normal  school. 

The  states  of  Vermont,  New  York,  Michigan,  Alinnesota, 
Indiana,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska  furnish  aid  to  high  schools 
offering  pedagogical  training.  ''In  Kansas,"  says  State  Super- 
intendent E.  T.  Fairchild,  ''this  course  is  one  of  the  most 
popular  educational  movements  ever  inaugurated.  During  the 
first  year  of  the  operation  of  this  law,  seven  hundred  seniors 
took  the  normal  training  course,  and  this  year  (1910)  more 
than  twelve  hundred  seniors  are  taking  the  training  course. 
Additional  appropriations  were  made  at  the  recent  sessions  of 
the  legislature — enough  to  add  forty  more  high  schools  to  the 
list  of  those  conducting  normal  training  courses.  We  have 
every  expectation,  therefore,  that  in  a  very  short  time  from 
fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  high  school  graduates  who 
have  devoted  the  last  year  of  their  course  in  large  part  to  the 
consideration  of  educational  problems  will  be  available  annu- 
ally for  our  rural  schools." 

Minnesota  also  has  worked  out  a  good  development  of  rural 
training  in  high  schools.  Here  state  aid  to  the  amount  of  $750 
a  year  is  granted  to  each  high  school  maintaining  a  peda- 
gogical department.  About  eighty  schools  have  availed  them- 
selves of  this  privilege.  These  departments  offer  one  year  of 
work  and  are  usually  in  charge  of  capable  supervisors.  Every 
effort  is  being  made  to  adapt  them  to  country  school  needs, 
and  when  this  adaptation  is  assured  it  is  evident  that  the  high 
school  affords  a  most  available  and  immediate  agency  for  the 
partial  preparation  of  country  teachers.  The  county  normal 
school  and  the  state  normal  school,  however,  as  institutions 
designed  primarily  for  the  training  of  teachers,  are  still  more 
effective  for  this  purpose. 

In  County  Normal  Schools.  The  county  training  school 
system,  as  organized  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  is  in  many 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


257 


ways  the  best  plan  thus  far  developed  for  the  preparation  of 
country  teachers.  The  state  normal  school  possesses  many  ad- 
vantages in  the  way  of  larger  social  and  professional  relation- 
ships impossible  to  the  smaller  school,  but  these  are  partly  offset 
by  the  unity  and  tangibility  of  conditions  represented  in  the 
.  county  institution.  The  chief  advantage  of  this  system  to  the 
state,  however,  lies  in  the  large  number  of  teachers  thus  annu- 
ally turned  out.  The  following  paragraphs  from  a  bulletin  on 
The  Training  of  Rural  School  Teachers,  written  by  Superin- 
tendent H.  S.  Youker,  and  issued  by  the  Wisconsin  State 
Department  of  Education,  summarize  well  the  chief  features  of 
this  plan : 

When  a  county  wishes  to  establish  a  training  school,  the  County 
Board  must  vote  to  establish  the  school.  This  application  must  receive 
the  approval  of  the  state  superintendent,  and  the  school  is  conducted 
under  his  supervision.  The  governing  body  of  the  school  is  a  com- 
mittee consisting  of  the  County  Superintendent  and  two  members 
appointed  by  the  County  Board. 

In  most  cases  these  schools  have  a  building  and  equipment  of  their 
own.  The  building  is  provided  by  the  county.  The  expense  of  main- 
tenance is  borne  by  the  state  and  the  county,  the  state  bearing  two- 
thirds  of  the  expense  and  the  county  one-third. 

A  diploma  from  a  training  school,  after  one  year  of  successful  teach- 
ing by  the  graduate,  has  the  force  of  a  third  grade  county  certificate 
for  three  years.  The  work  in  the  training  school  is  accredited  at  the 
state  normal  schools,  the  amount  of  credit  depending  on  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  student  before  entering  the  training  school.  The  course  of 
study  in  the  training  school  is  nov/  two  years  in  length. 

Training  school  pupils  have  the  privilege  of  observation  and  practice 
teaching  in  the  city  schools.  Reports  from  the  different  training  schools 
show  that  the  amount  of  this  practice  teaching  varies  from  five  to 
twenty  weeks. 

The  Wisconsin  training  schools  are  reaching  the  country  people  as 
no  other  institution  can.  The  salaries  paid  to  the  training  school  fac- 
ulties are  sufficient  to  draw  into  the  service  of  training  country  teachers 
the  very  best  talent  in  Wisconsin,  The  teachers  they  furnish  to  the 
country  schools  have  the  training  and  the  sympathy  which  enables  them 


258    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

to  make  education  for  country  boys  and  girls  more  nearly  hit  the  mark. 
May  the  plan  be  extended  until  everywhere  in  Wisconsin  the  boy  and 
the  girl  on  the  farm  have  as  good  educational  advantages  as  any 
children  in  the  land. 

Country    Teacher    Training    in    State    Normal    Schools. 

But  neither  the  good  work  nor  the  extension  of  county  normal 
schools  will  ever  excuse  the  state  normal  school  from  its 
proper  share  of  responsibility  in  the  training  of  country  teach- 
ers. A  broader  outlook  is  the  greatest  need  of  the  country 
teacher,  and  this  the  state  institution,  with  its  larger  social  and 
cultural  contact,  is  better  able  to  give  than  the  county  training 
school.  This  is  said  by  no  means  in  a  spirit  of  belittling  the 
good  work  cited  above,  but  only  to  emphasize  the  duty  of  the 
state  institution.  As  rural  education  develops  and  consolidated 
schools  become  generally  established,  there  will  be  a  constantly 
increasing  demand  for  better  country  teachers.  Such  thorough 
and  complete  training  as  will  then  be  commonly  demanded  can 
be  offered  only  in  large,  well-equipped  institutions ;  and  state 
normal  schools,  instead  of  being  relieved  from  this  duty,  will 
be  forced  to  give  it  serious  and  thoughtful  attention,  and  will 
gladly  comply  with  demands. 

Indiana.  To  the  Indiana  State  Normal  School  at  Terre 
Haute  belongs  the  credit  for  making  the  first  special  efYort  for 
the  training  of  country  teachers.  Since  1902  a  country  school 
has  been  maintained  here  as  a  part  of  the  regular  practice 
school.  This  school  is  a  true  country  school,  located  in  a  rural 
district,  six  miles  from  the  normal  school,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  electric  car  line.  All  members  of  the  senior 
class  of  the  normal  school  are  required  to  teach  in  it  for  at 
least  one  week.  Whether  or  not  this  is  the  best  policy  is  a 
problem  yet  to  be  worked  out  by  those  responsible  for  the  suc- 
cess of  the  undertaking.  But  the  mere  fact  that  a  country 
school  has  been  placed  in  the  training  department  of  such  an 
institution  has  tended  to  dignify  rural  teaching  in  the  eyes 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


259 


of  all  who  have  come  in  contact  with  the  normal  school  and 
has  forced  upon  them  some  appreciation  of  rural  conditions. 

Missouri.  The  Missouri  State  Normal  School  at  Kirksville, 
through  the  influence  of  its  president,  John  R.  Kirk,  has  also 
conducted  an  ungraded  school  since  1907.  A  building  has 
been  erected  for  this  purpose  on  the  normal  school  campus,  and 
the  children,  who  come  chiefly  from  two  different  rural  dis- 
tricts, are  transported  to  the  city  in  hacks.      This  building, 


Dramatization  of  Hiawatha,  Rural  Observation  School, 

Kalamazoo,    Michigan 

which  is  constructed  in  harmony  with  all  the  principles  of  con- 
venience and  beauty,  is  an  unusual  example  of  rural  school 
architecture  and  has  been  quite  extensively  copied  over  the 
state.  But  to  some,  its  location  in  town,  removed  from  a  nat- 
ural country  environment,  seems  likely  to  destroy  its  funda- 
mental characteristics  as  a  country  school.  This  danger  is  men- 
tioned here,  not  in  any  spirit  of  criticism,  but  only  because  of  its 
serious  bearing  upon  the  general  question  of  rural  education. 
In  all  effort  toward  progress  it  must  be  remembered  that  we 


26o   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

want  country  schools  for  country  children.  We  have  long  tried 
the  alternative  of  urban  schools,  especially  in  the  case  of  the 
township  and  city  high  school,  and  have  found  them  a  misfit. 
What  we  must  have  for  the  farm  is  a  farm  school — that  is, 
one  whose  environment,  interests,  and  social  influence,  are  all 
in  vital  sympathy  with  country  life.  Such  a  school  is  not 
likely  to  be  maintained  in  a  large  city,  though  a  small  village 
or  agricultural  trading  center  may  be  essentially  rural  in  its 
influence.  The  disadvantages  of  location  in  the  case  of  the 
Kirksville  school,  however,  are  said,  by  its  management,  to  be 
more  than  offset  by  its  increased  convenience  for  purposes  of 
observation  and  practice  among  the  normal  school  students. 
The  whole  plan  is  here  developing  rapidly  now  under  the 
direction  of  educators  thoroughly  in  sympathy  with  country 
school  needs  and  view  points.  A  special  Department  of 
Rural  Education  has  just  been  established,  which  enrolls 
three  hundred  students,  and  is  at  present  the  most  generously 
supported  of  any  similar  normal  school  department  in  the 
United  States.  A  valuable  bulletin,  setting  forth  the  organiza- 
tion and  service  of  this  department  in  greater  detail,  is  listed 
in  the  bibliography  of  this  book,  and  may  be  procured  upon 
request. 

Michigan.  To  IMichigan  belongs  the  credit  of  developing 
the  most  effective  and  unified  state  plan  thus  far  worked  out 
for  the  preparation  of  country  teachers.  Here  county  train- 
ing classes  have  long  been  authorized,  and  since  1897  each 
of  the  state  normal  schools  has  been  required  by  law  to  offer 
special  rural  courses.  The  normal  school  at  Kalamazoo  has 
done  more  along  this  line  of  special  training  for  those  who 
are  to  teach  in  the  country  than  any  other  in  Michigan. 

A  Rural  School  Department  is  here  maintained  and  two 
courses  are  offered,  an  elementary  and  an  advanced,  each  two 
years  in  length.  The  first  of  these  is  planned  for  graduates  of 
the  common  school  and  the  second  for  those  who  have  finished 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS  261 

the  tenth  grade.  Teachers  who  have  completed  the  work  of 
the  county  training  classes,  which  provide  a  one-year  course, 
may  take  the  advanced  course  in  a  year.  This  affiliation  of 
the  state  normal  schools  with  the  county  institutions  encour- 
ages those  who  have  gained  the  limited  and  elementary  prepa- 
ration of  the  training  classes  to  continue  work  in  the  regular 
normal  school.  A  typical  rural  school  under  the  direction 
of  the  department  is  provided  for  purposes  of  observation, 
though  no  actual  teaching  is  done  by  students  of  the  course 
at  present.  Among  the  most  distinctive  features  of  the  plan 
as  here  developed  are  a  Rural  Sociology  Seminar,  or  country- 
teacher  club,  enrolling  all  students  of  the  department  as  mem- 
bers, and  an  annual  series  of  "rural  progress  lectures." 

Washington.  All  state  normal  schools  in  Washington,  espe- 
cially the  one  at  Cheney,  have  at  present  fully  developed  and 
heartily  supported  rural  school  departments.  Here  the  progres- 
siveness  of  the  people,  the  friendliness  of  a  legislature  that  has 
still  the  people's  welfare  at  heart,  and  the  general  spirit  of 
growth  and  prosperity,  have  all  tended  to  create  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  this  work  that  can  be  found  anywhere.  In 
the  school  at  Cheney,  as  in  Michigan,  two  courses  are  offered 
for  country  teachers,  an  elementary  and  a  secondary  course, 
but  the  entrance  requirements  of  these  courses  are  higher  than 
those  of  ^Michigan.  Each  is  two  years  in  length,  the  first 
accepting  students  of  tenth  grade  rank  and  granting  an  ele- 
mentary diploma,  or  certificate,  upon  completion,  and  the 
second  accepting  students  of  eleventh  year  rank  and  granting 
a  secondary  diploma,  or  certificate.  These  certificates  are 
given  by  the  state  without  examination,  permitting  recipients 
.to  teach  two  and  three  years,  respectively.  This  recognition 
of  the  work  and  the  generous  salaries  offered  to  country  teach- 
ers attract  a  large  number  of  young  people,  both  men  and 
women,  into  these  courses. 

Since  the  inception  of  the  Rural  School  Department  in  the 


262   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Normal  School  at  Cheney,  county  superintendents  working 
in  conjunction  with  it  have  established  what  are  known  as 
county  observation  schools.  These  schools  are  intended  to 
approximate  ideal  country  school  conditions  so  far  as  possible, 
but  no  special  assistance  is  given  them  by  the  superintendent, 
except  to  insure  the  employment  of  good  teachers  and  to 
encourage  the  directors  to  make  all  reasonable  improvements. 
The  normal  school,  however,  renders  them  some  special  serv- 
ice through  an  intermittent  system  of  supervision  and  advisory 
correspondence,  and  through  furnishing  speakers  for  com- 
munity meetings.  This  work  has  not  yet  developed  fully,  but 
the  idea  is  a  fundamental  one  and  well  worthy  of  imitation. 

Another  notable  phase  of  the  country  school  movement  at 
Cheney  has  been  the  introduction  in  the  summer  school  of  a 
special  course  of  six  weeks'  duration  for  the  benefit  of 
newly-elected  and  inexperienced  county  superintendents.  This 
meager  course,  so  far  as  investigation  has  revealed,  is  the 
only  instance  of  a  direct  attempt  for  the  special  training  of 
county  superintendents  yet  made  in  the  United  States. 

Illinois.  In  September,  191 1,  the  Illinois  State  Normal  Uni- 
versity at  Normal  established  a  special  Country  School  Depart- 
ment. Strong  emphasis  is  placed  in  this  institution  upon  leader- 
ship and  the  sociological  aspects  of  rural  teaching.  The  keynote 
of  the  effort  expended  by  the  department  here  in  fact  is  well 
summarized  in  the  phrase :  the  country  school  as  a  center  for 
redirected  education  and  community  building.  Three  courses 
are  offered :  a  one-year  course  for  students  having  two  years 
of  high  school  preparation,  an  elementary  two-year  course  for 
graduates  of  the  eighth  grade,  and  an  advanced  two-year 
course  for  juniors  and  seniors  of  regular  normal  school  rank. 
The  chief  criterion  in  all  work  of  the  department  is  a  special 
adaptation  to  the  needs  of  country  schools.  The  complete 
program  of  studies  offered  in  the  elementary  two-year  course, 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


263 


which  will  further  illustrate  the  character  of  this  work,  is  as 
follows,  the  year  being  divided  into  three  terms : 


Nature  Study 

United  States  History 

Composition    and 

Grammar 
Primary   Construction 
Physical   Training 


Arithmetic  Method 
Problems  of  Country 

Life 
Geography  Method 
Literature   and    Reading 
Principles   of  Teaching 


FIRST   YEAR 
Arithmetic 
Orthography 
Composition    and 

Grammar 
Household   Science 
Physical  Training 

SECOND  YEAR 

Physiology    and    Rural 

Sanitation 
Civics    and    History    of 

Illinois 
Household  Art 
Country   School   Method 


Country   School 
Organization 
Geography 
Agriculture 
Drawing 
Physical  Training 


Agriculture   and   Nature 

Study 
Literature   Method 
Reading  Method, 

(6  weeks) 
History  Method, 

(6  weeks) 


Country  Teachers  at  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University 

The  organization  of  the  Country  School  Department  here  is 
threefold  and  is  designed  to  require  eventually  the  services  of 
three  special  instructors.  These  phases  may  be  defined  as 
follows : 


264   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

1.  The  special  resident  courses  relating  exclusively  to  coun- 
try schools  and  country  life ;  namely,  the  courses  in  country 
school  organization  and  management,  country  school  method 
and  observation,  rural  sociology,  and  agricultural  economics.^ 
To  these  should  be  added  the  Country  Life  Club,  an  organiza- 
tion maintained  among  the  students  of  the  department  for  the 
discussion  of  rural  problems. 

2.  The  work  of  the  Country  Training  School,  including 
both  observation  and  practice  teaching.  Though  as  yet  only 
in  initial  stages,  this  work  is  regarded  as  the  basis  of  the 
whole  department,  and  is  being  developed  largely  after  the 
practical  manner  of  the  Country  Training  School  of  the 
Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School  at  Macomb,  which  is 
described  in  succeeding  paragraphs. 

3.  The  extension  work  as  organized  under  a  special  Divi- 
sion of  Cooperative  Country  School  Extension. 

The  most  unique  feature  of  this  scheme  of  organization 
is  the  extension  work.  This  opportunity  for  assistance  is 
extended  to  any  country  teacher  in  Illinois  who  will  agree  to 
meet  certain  requirements.  Blanks  designed  for  the  purpose 
are  first  filled  out  by  those  enrolling  in  this  work  and  are 
filed  with  the  department.  These  contain  information  about 
the  teachers  and  their  schools  and  communities,  and  con- 
stitute a  meager  survey  of  the  school  locality.  One  specific 
problem  of  country  school  or  community  improvement  is  then 
selected  by  each  cooperating  teacher  who  agrees  to  organize 
a  campaign  for  its  advancement  and  to  attempt  to  carry  it 
through  to  a  solution.  A  written  report  with  photographs 
and  diagrams  showing  results  and  the  method  of  procedure 
in  attacking  this  problem  is  then  rendered  by  each  cooperator 
before  May  i.  Some  of  these  reports  are  published  as  bulle- 
tins by  the  department,  and  others  are  used  in  special  country 

1  For  outlines  of  two  of  these  courses,  see  appendix.  Sections  i  and  2. 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS  265 

school  exhibits.  Satisfactory  work  accompHshed  in  this  man- 
ner is  given  regular  credit  counting  toward  graduation. 

In  return  for  this  exertion  the  department  performs  recip- 
rocal services  for  cooperating  teachers.  Speakers  from  the 
normal  school  are  sent  out  into  local  country  schools  to  give 
talks  on  various  phases  of  school  and  community  improve- 
ment. A  portable  stereopticon,  which  can  be  used  without 
electricity  at  any  country  schoolhouse,  forms  a  part  of  the 
equipment  for  this  purpose.  The  traveling  expenses  of  these 
speakers  are  paid  by  the  communities  requesting  their  services, 
thus  insuring  the  self-support  of  the  plan.  Bulletins  relating 
to  various  phases  of  country  school  and  country  life  work  are 
published  from  time  to  time  for  free  distribution.  A  chief 
source  for  much  of  the  material  used  in  these  bulletins  is 
found  in  the  work  and  development  of  the  Country  Training 
School.  Other  materials  are  furnished  through  the  work  of 
country  teachers  out  in  the  schools  of  the  state  and  especially 
from  the  undertakings  of  those  cooperating  with  the  depart- 
ment. The  ultimate  intention  is  to  issue  these  bulletins  monthly. 

A  further  assistance  of  the  department  is  its  service  as  a 
general  bureau  of  information  on  country  school  and  country 
life  matters,  to  which  rural  teachers  and  directors  may  turn 
for  information  and  help.  Still  another  method  of  advancing 
the  extension  idea  as  worked  out  at  Normal  is  the  preparation 
of  exhibits  which  may  be  taken  or  sent  out  to  country  com- 
munity gatherings  and  teachers'  institutes.  A  limited  number 
of  books  on  rural  themes  is  also  loaned  by  the  department  to 
cooperating  teachers.  As  a  final  means  of  country  school 
propaganda,  the  department  assists  in  promoting  annual  coun- 
try school  conferences,  which  convene  at  the  normal  school 
each  vear  during  the  summer  term  and  which  are  proving 
most  effective  stimulants  for  rural  educational  progress. 

Among  the   earlier  pioneers  that  took  up  the  training  of 


266   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

country  teachers  before  the  Country  Life  Movement  became 
popularized  was  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School  at 
Macomb.  Country  school  work  at  the  Macomb  Normal  School 
was  introduced  through  the  efforts  of  its  late  principal,  Alfred 
Bayliss,  formerly  state  superintendent  of  Illinois  for  eight 
years  and  a  man  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  needs  of  coun- 
try schools  and  desirous  of  serving  them.  To  Mr.  Bayliss 
more  than  to  any  other  is  due  the  credit  for  the  realizations 
that  have  since  unfolded  from  this  initial  step.  Until  recently, 
Illinois  provided  neither  funds  nor  legislation  conducive  to 
this  effort,  and  this  work,  as  developed  at  Macomb,  therefore 
serves  as  a  good  illustration  of  what  is  possible  on  the  part  of 
an  earnest  state  normal  school  even  under  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances. Since  1907  a  special  one-year  course  has  been 
offered  at  Macomb  for  prospective  country  teachers.  Admis- 
sion to  this  course  is  limited  to  the  holders  of  second  grade 
certificates  and  to  graduates  of  the  eighth  grade  recommended 
by  county  superintendents.  The  most  serious  criticism  of  this 
plan,  as  at  present  inaugurated,  is  its  brevity.  However,  as 
Mr.  Bayliss  has  said  in  referring  to  this  point,  ''Until  the  time 
arrives  when  boards  of  directors  will  refuse  to  employ  very 
young  and  quite  unprepared  teachers,  such  a  course  as  this 
will  doubtless  be  necessary  if  the  normal  school  is  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  schools." 

A  chief  feature  of  the  Country  School  Department  at 
Macomb  heretofore  has  been  a  Country  Training  School, 
located  in  a  true  farm  environment  about  two  miles  from  the 
normal  school.  The  teacher  put  in  charge  of  this  school 
was  an  actual  country  teacher,  selected  from  the  rank  and 
file  of  country  teachers,  though  an  eager  student  of  country 
school  progress  and  rural  social  conditions.  Under  such 
practical  leadership,  and  the  scientific  direction  of  the  head 
of  the  Department  of  Education  in  the  normal  school,  this 
experiment  in  the  three  years  of  its  continuation  reached  per- 


Country  Training  School  of  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal 

School — Before   Improvement 


268   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

haps  the  fullest  development  of  the  country  training  school 
idea  thus  far  worked  out. 

The  guiding  motive  throughout  the  undertaking  was  that 
of  actual  possibility.  To  insure  this  practicability  three  pre- 
cautions were  taken.  The  school  selected  was  a  typical  country 
school,  with  the  natural  environment  and  all  the  difficulties 
of  the  ordinary  country  school ;  the  teacher  was  a  real  coun- 
try teacher,  transferred  from  another  country  school  of  the 
state;  and  the  normal  school  gave  no  financial  support  to  the 
undertaking,  except  to  pay  the  salary  of  the  teacher.  Con- 
cisely summarized,  the  purposes  underlying  the  establishment 
of  the  Country  Training  School  at  Macomb  may  be  stated 
thus : 

1.  To  remake  a  typically  needy  school  as  a  demonstration 
of  possibility. 

2.  To  show  how  a  country  school  may  be  made  a  social 
center  for  its  community,  and  an  energizing  force  for  country 
life  progress. 

3.  To  furnish  a  training  or  practice  school  for  country 
teachers,  where  they  might  actually  try  out  the  theory  given 
them  in  a  country,  rather  than  a  graded,  school. 

4.  To  serve  as  an  experiment  station  in  rural  education  and 
provide  an  opportunity  for  working  out  a  country  school 
curriculum. 

5.  To  furnish  an  opportunity  for  the  departments  of  the 
normal  school  to  study  the  needs  of  country  schools  at  first 
hand. 

6.  To  stimulate  and  develop  state-wide  interest  in  the  solu- 
tion of  the  country  school  problem  and  in  all  educational  and 
social  movements  affecting  its  solution. 

The  school  selected  as  the  scene  of  this  endeavor  was  an 
ordinary  box-car  building  with  one  room  and  a  small  hall 
protruding  in  front.  The  paper  was  old  and  dingy;  the 
blackboards  cracked  and  useless ;   the  plaster  missing  in  spots ; 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS  269 

the  window  panes  broken  and  paper-patched ;  the  seats  old 
and  double,  and  elaborately  decorated  with  "the  jack-knife's 
carved  initial."  The  stove,  red  and  un jacketed,  stood  in  the 
middle  of  the  room.  The  chimney  above  was  braced  by  a 
wooden  support  from  the  floor.  There  was  an  old  organ,  but 
no  library.  The  teacher's  first  work  was  sweeping  cobwebs, 
scrubbing  floors,  and  polishing  the  stove.  The  yard  was 
large  and  roomy  and  well  shaded,  but  marred  in  front  by  the 
presence  of  the  usual  dilapidated  coal  house.  The  outbuild- 
ings were  mere  shells,  disgracefully  open  and  scant  of  boards. 
The  children  as  a  whole  were  typically  average,  too.  There 
had  been  no  evident  attempt  at  grading,  and  there  was  but 
small  appreciation  of  the  value  of  daily  school  work  and  less 
of  the  school  as  a  functional  source  of  growth  in  community 
life. 

In  attacking  these  conditions  the  work  of  the  school  was 
organized  under  five  heads : 

1.  The  problem  of  the  physical  environment,  or  the  im- 
provement of  buildings  and  grounds. 

2.  The  problem  of  the  social  environment — that  is,  of 
making  the  school  a  center  of  community  service  and  a 
source  of  growth  for  social  and  intellectual  betterment. 

3.  The  problem  of  instruction  and  of  the  development  of 
a  curriculum  adapted  to  the  actual  life  needs  of  country  chil- 
dren. 

4.  The  problem  of  administration,  making  possible  through 
improved  organization  and  management  the  solution  of  the 
other  problems  named. 

5.  The  problem  of  the  training  of  teachers  for  country 
schools,  providing  an  opportunity  for  both  observation  and 
participant  teaching. 

In  the  campaign  of  improvement  immediately  started,  atten- 
tion was  first  directed  to  the  physical  environment  of  the 
school.     It  was  soon  decided  to  build  two  new  outbuildings, 


270   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

to  move  and  turn  the  school  building,  construct  a  basement, 
and  put  in  a  furnace.  The  interior  was  then  remodeled  and 
redecorated,  a  bay  window  and  window  seat  being  added  to 
close  the  end  of  the  building  left  open  by  the  removal  of  the 
hall.  New  seats,  a  clock,  a  bookcase,  w^ork  benches,  primary 
chairs  and  tables,  curtains,  hall  linoleum,  rugs,  pictures,  and 
a  piano  and  a  telephone  were  later  added  to  the  influence  of 
the  room.  In  the  meantime  the  yard  came  in  for  a  share  of 
metamorphosis.  Trees  were  set  out,  shrubs,  vines,  and  flowers 
planted,  a  strawberry  bed  started,  and  a  garden  and  a  corn 
plot  laid  out.  After  some  necessary  grading,  the  lawn  was 
well  seeded  and  a  lawn  mower  provided  with  which  to  keep  it 
trimmed.  A  new  fence  and  cement  walks,  the  pride  and 
achievement  of  the  directors,  were  built.  To  these  improve- 
ments was  added  a  mail  box,  which  with  the  telephone,  fur- 
nished connection  with  the  outside  world  and  removed  the 
isolation  in  which  most  country  schools  exist. 

The  first  stirrings  of  the  social  awakening  which  soon  began 
were  manifested  in  the  unity  engendered  by  this  campaign  for 
physical  improvement.  Early  in  the  history  of  the  undertak- 
ing, the  people  of  the  neighborhood  had  responded  to  a  "sing" 
and  had  agreed  to  donate  labor  for  the  excavation  of  the  base- 
ment. This  was  the  first  act  of  community  cooperation  that 
had  occurred  in  years.  But  others  followed  in  quick  succes- 
sion. A  parents'  association  was  formed ;  a  girls'  club  sprang 
into  being  and  developed  with  surprising  enthusiasm ;  com- 
munity gatherings  became  popular  ;  exhibits  were  held  ;  local 
and  even  railway  excursions  became  a  reality ;  and  school- 
house  parties  and  athletic  activities  added  much  to  the  solution 
of  the  neighborhood  recreation  question,  binding  the  young 
people  of  the  district  not  only  to  the  school  but  to  the  com- 
munity and  its  life.  Practically  all  the  suggestions  offered 
under  the  discussion  of  the  social  phase  of  the  country  teach- 
er's problem  in  the  preceding  chapter  were   developed  and 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


271 


Country  Training  School  of  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal 

School — After  Improvement 

tested  here,  and  the  specific  accounts  there  given  refer  for  the 
most  part  to  this  school.  The  social  transformation  thus 
effected  was  declared  marvelous  by  many  who  witnessed  it. 
And,  in  truth,  the  loyalty  and  devotion  of  the  people  to  their 
little  country  school  was  good  to  see,  but  there  was  no  marvel 


2^2 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


about  it,  other  than  that  of  a  teacher  who  had  had  proper 
training  for  country  teaching. 

But  more  significant  than  either  physical  or  social  meta- 
morphosis was  the  educational  reform  wrought.  It  was  the 
ideal  of  the  teacher  and  of  others  interested  in  the  project  to 
make  this  school  serve  somewhat  as  an  experiment  station  in 
rural  elementary  education.  Not  mere  routine  teaching  but 
the  development  of  a  real  country  school  course  of  study 
fitted  to  the  needs  of  the  local  community  was  conceived  to 
be  the  function  of  the  school.  In  this  redirection  old  subjects 
were  first  culled  of  their  chaff  and  then  vitalized  by  being 
taught  in  terms  of  daily  life.  Later,  new  courses,  especially 
in  agriculture,  household  science,  and  manual  training,  were 
introduced.  Pedagogically,  the  teaching  of  the  school  was 
unusual  in  being  constructive  and  expcrinicntal.  The  courses 
in  agriculture,  home  science,  and  elementary  rural  sociology, 
described  in  chapter  ten,  for  example,  which  were  products 
of  the  work  here,  wxre  locally  adapted  and  constructive,  not- 
withstanding their  many  faults.  Other  illustrations  of  this 
constructiveness  were  evidenced  in  the  picture  study  experi- 
ment recorded  in  the  appendix  of  this  book,  in  a  music  appre- 
ciation course  based  not  upon  note  reading  and  formal  mechan- 
ics, but  upon  rhythm,  spirit,  and  the  love  of  music,  and  in  the 
various  ideas  of  community  service  formerly  mentioned. 

To  train  teachers  for  country  schools  was,  however,  the 
avowed  purpose  of  this  school,  and  all  the  efifort  just  nar- 
rated was  undertaken  especially  that  it  might  serve  as  a  means 
to  this  end,  and  as  a  program  of  action  and  suggestion  for 
other  country  teachers.  The  school  was  extensively  used  for 
observation,  and  some  participant  or  practice  teaching  was 
conducted.  Only  students  of  regular  senior  and  junior  rank 
were  granted  the  latter  privilege.  Teaching  in  the  country 
school  was  wholly  elective  on  the  part  of  students,  and  the 
significant  fact  here  was  its  popularity,  notwithstanding  the 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


'2-7Z 


two-mile  walk  thus  imposed,  and  frequent  prophecies  to  the 
effect  that  "normal  school  students  wouldn't  look  at  a  country 
training  school  unless  you  drove  them  to  it,  anyway." 

Among  country  teachers,  county  superintendents,  normal 
school  presidents,  and  all  who  came  in  contact  with  it,  this  little 
country  school  helped  to  stimulate  a  new  idealism  of  country 
teaching.  The  further  enlargement  of  this  idealism  will  be 
told  in  some  detail  in  connection  with  the  Country  Teachers' 
Association  of  Illinois,  through  which  it  has  been  preserved 
and  propagated. 

The  New  Spirit  of  Country  Teachers.  Notwithstanding 
legislative  neglect  and  various  other  inconsiderations  a  new 
spirit  has  come  upon  rural  education,  and  there  is  every- 
where a  clear  promise  of  the  "new  race  of  country  teachers" 
which  Professor  Bailey  of  the  Country  Life  Commission 
prophesies  shall  rise  up  among  us.  This  change  has  been 
engendered  by  a  new  vision  of  country  school  service,  and 
wherever  such  a  vision  is  carried  there  is  manifest  the  new 
spirit  of  the  country  school. 

A  special  agency  through  which  this  spirit  has  been  devel- 
oped in  Illinois  for  the  last  five  years  is  the  Country  Teachers' 
Association  of  Illinois.  This  state-wide  association  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  country  teachers  and  others  who  have  the 
welfare  of  the  country  school  at  heart  and  who  wish  to  attract 
attention  to  its  vexed  problems.  It  was  organized  at  the  West- 
ern Illinois  State  Normal  School  in  INIacomb  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1907.  The  charter  membership  numbered  eighty. 
Since  that  time  about  two  thousand  country  teachers,  county 
superintendents,  local  school  officers,  and  farmers,  attracted 
by  its  doctrines,  have  enrolled. 

The  Country  Teachers'  Association  of  Illinois  stands  in  gen- 
eral for  all  phases  of  country  life  progress.  Its  purposes  as 
set  forth  in  the  preamble  of  the  constitution  are :  ''To  elevate 
the  character  and  advance  the  interests  of  country  teaching 


274 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


and  country  teachers,  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  country 
schools,  and  to  make  life  large  and  lovely  for  the  country 
child."  Believing  that  the  country  school  is  the  most  direct 
and  immediately  influential  of  rural  socializing  agencies,  this 
organization  proposes  to  build  up  farm  life  in  Illinois,  by  first 
increasing  the  efficiency  of  country  schools  and  the  rural 
teaching  force.  To  further  its  initial  purpose  it  seeks  the 
realization  of  three  immediate  ends:  i.  It  hopes  to  create  a 
greater  and  more  effective  and  practical  interest  amiong  the 
normal  schools  of  the  state  for  the  training  of  country  teach- 
ers. 2.  It  strives  to  dignify  country  school  teaching  and  make 
it  a  recognized  phase  of  the  teaching  profession.  3.  It  pro- 
poses ultimately  to  effect  a  federation  of  all  the  rural  forces 
of  the  state,  and  especially  encourages  the  united  harmony 
and  effort  of  the  school,  home,  farmers'  institute.  Grange, 
country  church,  and  road  associations. 

To  this  end  annual  Country  School  Conferences  are  held, 
through  which  country  teachers  and  others  are  gaining  a  new 
understandinof  of  countrv  teaching;.  The  third  of  these  confer- 
ences,  convening  at  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University  at 
Normal  in  1910,  proved  an  eventful  meeting.  A  special  triumph 
of  this  conference  was  an  evening  address  by  Professor  L.  H. 
Bailey,  chairman  of  the  Country  Life  Commission.  But  the 
most  significant  developments  of  the  convention  were  con- 
centrated in  the  last  session  through  an  able  address  upon 
the  subject  of  rural  federation,  by  President  Kenyon  L.  But- 
terfield  of  the  Massachusetts  College  of  Agriculture.  Having 
formerly  conceived  the  mission  of  the  country  teacher  as  one 
of  broad  social  leadership,  and  having  gradually  educated  its 
following  to  this  conception  through  its  literature  and  con- 
ferences, the  Country  Teachers'  Association  became  an  excel- 
lent medium  for  the  promulgation  of  the  federation  idea. 
Enthusiasm  increased  in  the  general  discussion  following  this 
address  until  it  was  decided  to  call  a  special  meeting  during 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS  275 

the  ensuing  year  for  the  organization  of  a  comprehensive, 
state-wide  federation  for  country  life.  This  was  done  in 
February,  191 1,  and  the  Ilhnois  Federation  for  Country  Life 
Progress,  which  is  further  discussed  in  the  last  chapter  of 
this  book,  came  into  being.  From  the  germ  of  little  beginnings 
has  thus  grown  a  movement  designed  to  enlist  all  the  forces  of 
a  great  state  in  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  the  present  age. 

A  Suggestive  Outline  for  Country  School  Departments  in 
State  Normal  Schools.  In  concluding  this  discussion  of  the 
responsibility  of  the  normal  school  for  the  country  school, 
I  shall  outline  what  seems  to  me  an  immediately  practical 
attempt  for  any  state  normal  school  which  desires  to  serve  the 
farmers  that  help  to  support  it.  In  every  instance  it  will  be 
necessary  to  solve  this  problem,  as  all  others,  in  terms  of  local 
conditions.  Nevertheless,  since  there  will  naturally  be  much 
groping  about  in  this  work  for  the  next  few  years,  a  few 
constructive  suggestions  are  permissible  here. 

There  should  be  in  the  first  place  a  special  department  of 
the  normal  school  devoted  to  country  school  interests ;  other- 
wise the  work  is  sure  to  be  slighted.  Moreover,  the  present 
attitude  toward  country  teaching  demands  this  formal  recog- 
nition. The  course  offered  through  this  department  had  best 
be  two  years  in  length,  the  standard  for  entrance  being  as  high 
as  possible.  In  states  where  defective  legislation  allows  wholly 
untrained  young  people  to  be  certificated  and  to  teach,  how- 
ever, it  will  probably  be  necessary  to  accept  students  of  ninth 
grade  rank.  But  even  for  these  much  can  be  done,  and  done 
without  necessarily  ''lowering  the  standard  of  scholarship"  in 
the  normal  school. 

Contiguous  with  this  course  should  be  offered  another,  also 
of  two  years'  duration,  for  graduates  of  the  tenth  grade.  As 
the  standard  of  the  department  rises,  it  should  be  possible  to 
discard  the  more  elementary  course  and  supplant  it  by  the 
advanced   one,   as   has   been   done   at   Kalamazoo,   Michigan. 


276   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Eventually  there  should  be  introduced,  also,  a  special  advanced 
course  of  regular  normal  school  rank  for  the  preparation 
of  teachers  for  high-salaried  country  schools,  consolidated 
schools,  normal  departments  in  high  schools,  and  other  spe- 
cial phases  of  rural  education. 

The  basic  elements  of  these  courses  should  be  agriculture, 
nature  study,  and  home  science,  since  these  subjects  must  con- 
stitute the  backbone  of  the  redirected  country  school  curricu- 
lum. These  and  other  subject-matter  courses  should  be  taught 
by  specialists  of  the  normal  school.  Three  special  courses 
relating  to  the  immediate  problems  of  country  teaching  should 
be  included  in  this  curriculum,  namely,  country  school  admin- 
istration, country  school  method,  and  rural  sociology.  The 
first  of  these  should  deal  with  the  physical  improvement, 
organization,  management,  and  social  relationships  of  the 
country  school.  The  second  course  should  give  a  glimpse  of 
child-study  and  of  the  principles  of  teaching  dependent  upon 
it,  and  should  especially  emphasize  and  illustrate  the  country 
school  approach  necessary  in  good  country  school  teaching. 
In  connection  with  this  course  much  observation  and,  for 
stronger  students,  a  little  practice  teaching  should  be  offered, 
and  offered  under  actual  country  school  conditions.  The 
course  in  rural  sociology  should  follow  these,  giving  a  better 
understanding  of  farm  life  and  a  clearer  vision  of  its  possi- 
bilities. Suggestive  outlines  for  the  first  and  third  of  these 
courses  are  included  in  the  appendix  of  this  book.  (Sections 
I  and  2.) 

Serving  the  country  school  department  here  recommended 
should  be  three  special  workers :  a  general  head  or  director, 
a  country  school  training  or  critic  teacher,  and  an  extension 
worker.  These  instructors  should  be  able  to  exchange  places 
at  times,  each  doing  the  work  of  another  temporarily,  so  that 
all  may  retain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  whole  country 
school   problem.      The    director   should   be   an   individual   of 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 


2TJ 


country  school  experience  and  sympathy,  the  best  of  training, 
and  inspiring  personahty.  He  should  have  general  oversight 
of  the  entire  work  of  the  department  and  should  cooperate 
with  other  departments  and  instructors  in  adapting  the  whole 
country  school  training  course  to  the  immediate  needs  and 
limitations  of  the  prospective  country  teachers  enrolled. 


First  Annual  ^Meeting  of  the  Country  Teachers'  Association  of 

Illinois,  Macomb,  July,  1908 

A  one-teacher  country  training  school  should  by  all  means 
be  maintained  as  an  integral  part  of  every  normal  country 
school  department.  A  special  characteristic  of  such  a  school 
should  be  its  constructiveness  and  practicability.  Without 
these  it  can  never  win  the  approval  and  cooperation  of  working 
country  teachers.  Another  much-needed  development  of  the 
country  training  school  idea  is  the  establishment  of  consoli- 


278   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

dated  training  schools.  The  consolidated  country  school  is 
with  us  not  only  to  stay  but  to  increase  a  thousandfold,  and 
if  it  is  to  be  properly  directed  we  must  have  teachers  trained 
to  handle  its  problems.  In  working  out  these  consolidated 
training  schools,  the  first  step  should  by  no  means  be  omitted 
— that  is,  their  creation  from  non-consolidated  territory.  This 
is  the  first  step  for  country  teachers  in  the  field,  and  one  for 
which  they  need  much  direction. 

State  universities  and  colleges  of  agriculture  are  now  ren- 
dering good  service  to  their  respective  states  through  organ- 
ized extension  work.  Thousands  of  dollars  are  appropriated 
annually  for  this  purpose.  If  farmers,  mechanics,  and  engi- 
neers are  to  be  given  this  great  service,  why  not  afford  oppor- 
tunities equally  efficient  to  the  hundreds  of  struggling  teachers 
who  might  thus  be  enabled  to  do  more,  both  for  themselves 
and  for  those  under  their  charge?  Investigation,  however, 
reveals  practically  no  normal  schools  in  the  country  under- 
taking organized,  systematic  extension  work.^  In  rural  dis- 
tricts work  of  this  kind  is  badly  needed  and  is  in  great  demand. 
Country  school  extension  may  be  a  new  term,  but  who  shall 
say  it  is  not  justified? 

In  harmony  with  this  suggestion  the  extension  division  of 
every  normal  country  school  department  should  be  well  organ- 
ized and  supported.  The  extension  worker  should  be  a  sin- 
cere and  attractive  speaker,  thoroughly  familiar  with  all  phases 
of  rural  progress.  A  portable  lantern,  numerous  slides,  and 
perhaps  a  good  phonograph,  should  constitute  a  part  of  his 
equipment.  To  these  should  be  added  charts,  pictures,  books, 
bulletins,  and  plans,  specifications,  and  models  of  country 
school  buildings  and  furnishings.  Every  country  teacher  and 
school  director  in  the  territory  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 

1  The  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School  at  Macomb  is  now 
developing  a  good  system  of  extension  work. 


THE  TRAINING  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS  279 

normal  school  should  feel  affiliated  with  its  rural  department. 
In  realizing  this  end  the  assistance  of  the  extension  worker 
will  be  found  a  chief  factor.  A  formal  organization  or  asso- 
ciation among  working  country  teachers  w411  also  further 
this  feeling  of  cooperation  and  tend  to  increase  the  efficiency 
and  service  of  the  extension  division.  As  one  phase  of  its 
endeavor  this  organization  may  well  stimulate  the  constructive 
attack  of  individual  local  problems  among  working  country 
teachers  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  the  Country  School 
Department  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University. 

Adequate  plans  should  be  devised  by  the  director  and  other 
officers  of  this  department  for  meeting  the  needs  of  farmers 
and  country  teachers  as  they  arise.  The  rooms  and  office  of 
the  department  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  display  a  per- 
manent exhibit  of  country  school  buildings,  grounds,  and 
equipment,  and  of  books,  bulletins,  and  educational  helps,  for 
the  students  of  the  department  and  for  visiting  directors  and 
teachers.  The  office  should  also  become  a  bureau  of  infor- 
mation to  which  teachers  and  directors  may  wTite  for  assist- 
ance. Under  the  direction  of  the  extension  department  and 
through  this  bureau  of  information,  monthly  bulletins  relat- 
ing to  country  school  problems  should  be  issued  to  all  rural 
teachers  in  the  territory  of  the  normal  school.  Wisely  planned 
and  carefully  executed  consolidation  campaigns  should  be 
undertaken  by  the  department  in  conjunction  with  the  teachers 
and  people  of  various  communities. 

Still  another  significant  relationship  of  the  efficient  normal 
country  school  department  should  be  its  responsibility  to 
county  superintendents.  For  these  much  neglected  and  over- 
worked servants  of  education,  frequent  conferences  of  en- 
couragement and  suggestion  should  be  provided,  and  special 
summer  courses  should  be  offered.  In  cooperation  with 
county  superintendents  one  or  more  county  observation 
schools  may  also  be  developed  in  each  county.     ]\Ieanwhile,  to 


28o   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

crystallize  all  this  effort,  annual  country  school  conferences 
and  exhibits  should  be  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  normal 
school  as  a  summary  of  the  work  of  the  department  for  each 
year. 

The  great  need  of  special  normal  school  departments  for 
the  training  of  country  teachers  is  rapidly  growing  to  a 
demand  which  must  soon  he  met.  No  one  appreciates  this 
better  than  normal  school  presidents,  by  whom  the  issue  has 
been  frequently  discussed.  A  serious  detriment  to  the  best 
development  of  such  departments  at  present,  however,  is  the 
scarcity  of  well-trained  men  and  women  to  act  as  directors 
for  them,  and  the  absence  of  institutions  where  proper  train- 
ing of  this  type  may  be  acquired.  Meanwhile  attention  must 
be  concentrated  on  the  larger  and  more  immediate  issue  of 
providing  special  training  for  local  coimtry  teachers. 

Trained  Teachers  Not  the  Only  Need  for  Solving  the 
Country  School  Problem.  In  conclusion,  let  one  additional 
thought  be  emphasized.  The  crucial  need  for  country  schools 
is  specially  and  zvell-trained  teachers.  But  even  trained 
teachers  are  human  and  can  adequately  perform  but  a  small 
part  of  the  work  required  by  a  daily  program  registering  from 
six  to  eight  grades.  They  alone  can  never  solve  the  country 
school  problem.  In  fact,  the  problem  cannot  be  adequately 
solved  until  the  fundamental  need,  the  change  from  the  one- 
teacher  to  the  consolidated  system,  has  been  attained.  With 
this  change,  and  in  no  other  way,  will  come  the  final  adjust- 
ment of  difficulties.  But  the  very  process  of  this  conversion 
is  a  matter  of  education  which  must  be  wrought  largely 
through  the  leadership  of  efficient  teachers.  Thus  the  issue 
returns  to  the  original  contention,  herein  set  forth,  and  pro- 
claims the  necessity  and  advent  of  "a  new  race  of  country 
teachers,"  who  shall  rise  up  and  function  as  the  most  imme- 
diate factor  in  the  solution  of  the  American  farm  problem. 


CHAPTER  XII 
COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 

Importance  of  Country  School  Supervision.  No  phase  of 
country  school  improvement  is  more  urgent  and  significant 
than  that  of  supervision.  This,  at  least,  is  the  consensus  of 
opinion  among  educators  and  all  others  qualified  to  analyze 
the  question. 

Consolidation,  in  its  best  form,  has  been  advocated  through- 
out this  book  as  the  only  adequate  solution  of  the  country 
school  problem.  But  before  consolidation  becomes  general, 
we  must  have  virile  educational  leaders  to  reveal  its  advan- 
tages to  farmers  and  others ;  and  rural  supervisors,  or  county 
superintendents,  may  fulfill  this  office  most  effectively.  This 
they  can  do  even  better  in  some  ways  than  country  teachers, 
because  better  placed  and  usually  better  prepared  for  leader- 
ship than  teachers.  The  good  country  teacher  must  become 
a  local  community  leader,  but  the  efficient  county  superintend- 
ent by  the  very  nature  of  his  position  is  not  only  a  leader  of 
the  people,  but  a  leader  of  leaders.  Thus  it  is  evident  that 
supervision  might  easily  be  made  the  immediate  point  of 
attack  upon  the  whole  problem  of  country  school  improve- 
ment and  rural  life  progress. 

Difficulties.  But  instead  of  being  so  considered  and  built 
up  as  a  profession,  country  school  supervision  has  been  shame- 
fully neglected,  until  the  whole  system  is  beset  with  prac- 
tically insurmountable  difficulties.  These  difficulties,  like  those 
of  the  country  teacher,  are  literally  too  numerous  to  name. 
The  following  classification  is  probably  not  complete,  but  it 
will  reveal  at  least  enough  encumbrances  to  show  something 

281 


282    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

of  the  seriousness  of  the  existing  situation.     Among  these 
handicaps  to  efficient  supervision  are: 

1.  DifUciilties  arising  from  the  status  of  the  rural  teaching 
force.  Three  aspects  of  this  trouble  should  be  considered, 
namely:  (a)  that  country  teachers  are  largely  untrained  and 
transient;  (b)  that  each  supervisor  has  far  too  many  teachers 
to  direct;  and  (c)  that  these  numerous  untrained  workers 
are  not  even  centrally  located  where  they  can  be  visited  fre- 
quently, but  are  scattered  over  great  tracts  of  open  country 
connected  usually  by  earth  roads  which  are  as  often  impassable 
as  passable. 

Only  those  who  have  been  engaged  in  the  work  of  super- 
vision can  appreciate  the  amount  of  time  necessary  for  its 
proper  execution,  even  when  teachers  are  partially  trained, 
but  when  wholly  untrained  teachers  are  to  be  considered,  as 
is  practically  the  case  in  most  rural  counties,  the  problem 
becomes  far  more  complicated.  It  must  be  reflected,  too,  that 
the  rural  supervisor  is  not  dealing  with  just  a  few  cases,  to 
each  of  whom  he  may  devote  a  large  share  of  time,  but  with 
two  or  three  hundred  perhaps.  In  Wisconsin,  which  may  be 
selected  as  a  typical  state,  each  county  superintendent  on  the 
average  supervises  the  work  of  136  teachers  and  4,250  chil- 
dren, covering  an  average  territory  of  700  square  miles.  In 
Illinois,  the  average  number  to  each  supervisor  is  113  teachers 
and  8,000  children,  with  a  territory  of  555  square  miles.  Add 
to  this  the  fact  that  this  large  body  of  insufficiently  trained 
workers  is  transient,  and  that  for  economic  reasons  and  others, 
the  great  majority  of  country  teachers  migrate  annually,  thus 
necessitating  constant  instability  and  readjustment,  and  some- 
thing of  the  seriousness  of  the  rural  supervisor's  predicament 
begins  to  be  realize-d. 

2.  Difficulties  arising  from  the  limitations  and  defects  of 
the  country  school  system.     These  include  all  the  difficulties  of 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


283 


country  school  teaching  that  have  been  set  forth  in  earHer 
chapters,  and  that  are  met  with  on  every  hand  in  the  actual 
experiences  of  the  schoolroom.-  "The  perplexities  of  the  coun- 
try teacher  are  generally  acknowledged,  but  the  county  super- 
intendent in  assisting  his  teachers  must  face  all  their  diffi- 
culties and  still  others  beside.  When  making  his  annual,  or 
semi-annual,  calls,  and  at  any  other  hour  of  the  day  or  year, 


Full  of  Difficulties  for  the  County   Superintendent 


the  rural  supervisor  must  be  prepared  to  consider  all  the  ac- 
cumulated troubles  of  his  teachers  and  to  meet  not  only  ques- 
tions of  teaching  method  and  school  management,  but  fre- 
quently boarding-place  dilemmas  and  issues  of  neighborhood 
feud. 

J.  Difficulties  arising  from  ignorance  and  neglect  on  the 
part  of  school  officers  and  patrons.  These  in  many  com- 
munities demand  much  attention.    The  average  school  officer, 


284   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

though  a  well-meaning  individual,  seldom  knows  much  of  legal 
routine,  and  is  almost  certain,  either  through  inability  or  negli- 
gence, to  become  involved  in  complications  taxing  the  time 
and  attention  of  the  supervisor.  Only  superintendents  know 
how  difficult  it  is  to  collect  accurately  the  little  data  and  few 
reports  required  of  directors.  But  even  worse  than  this  is 
the  common  inertia  and  unprogressiveness,  not  only  of  school 
officers  but  of  people  generally,  against  which  county  super- 
intendents must  struggle  unceasingly  and  from  which  fre- 
quently arise  prejudice,  antagonism,  and  a  misunderstanding 
of  all  educational  reform. 

4.  Di-fficultics  arising  front  the  present  general  system  of 
rural  supervision.  These  are  the  most  severe  and  discour- 
aging of  all.  Moreover,  they  are  the  most  inexcusable,  be- 
cause the  most  unnecessary.  These  difficulties  may  be  grouped 
under  three  heads :  political  hindrances,  insufficient  financial 
compensation,  and  too  much  work.  In  this  three-fold  sum- 
mary of  annoyance  is  expressed  the  very  heart  and  source 
of  the  rural  supervisor's  distress.  Herein  also  lies  the  explana- 
tion of  the  fact  that  after  fifty  or  more  years  of  such  work, 
we  still  have  no  profession  of  country  school  supervision. 
Of  all  hindrances  of  the  rural  supervisory  system,  none  is 
more  productive  of  evil  than  its  connection  with  politics. 
More  will  be  said  later  of  this  and  of  the  question  of  financial 
compensation.  Suffice  it  to  state  here  that  politics  frequently 
puts  inefficient  men  into  the  system,  and  at  best  inconveniences 
good  superintendents. 

Nothing,  however,  could  be  more  discouraging  than  the 
multitudinous  duties  of  the  county  superintendent.  In  most 
states,  legislatures  for  the  past  twenty  years  have  constantly 
increased  the  duties  of  county  superintendents  without  pro- 
portionately increasing  their  salaries  or  providing  sufficient 
assistance.  It  has  been  carefully  estimated  by  one  who  knows, 
that  the  work  expected  of  the  average  county  superintendent, 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  285 

if  well  executed,  would  keep  at  least  five  capable  men  em- 
ployed! And  yet  it  is  only  under  the  greatest  pressure  that 
an  assistant  is  provided,  and  then  usually  but  one  is  supplied. 
It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  even  before  the  county 
superintendent  can  get  out  in  the  field  to  attack  his  problems, 
at  least  two  large  reductions  must  be  made  from  his  avail- 
able time  and  energy.  The  first  of  these  is  the  deduction 
necessary  for  the  clerical  work  of  his  office.  This  consumes 
weeks  that  are  needed  for  actual  supervision  and  educational 
leadership.  So  great,  in  fact,  is  this  drain  that  the  average 
rural  supervisor  can  seldom  spend  more  than  three  or  four 
months  of  the  year  actively  engaged  in  the  real  work  for  which 
he  is  employed.  Some  day  farmers  will  appreciate  perhaps 
that  it  is  poor  economy  to  make  janitors  of  teachers  and 
clerks  of  superintendents,  but  as  yet  even  this  small  percent- 
age of  time  must  be  again  reduced  by  subtracting  the  hours 
consumed  in  driving  from  one  school  to  another.  In  one  large 
county  of  Illinois,  exclusive  of  railroad  and  interurban  travel, 
the  county  superintendent  finds  it  necessary  to  drive  ^(^2  miles 
in  visiting  each  of  his  schools  once.  This  means  that  when 
traveling  twenty-five  miles  a  day,  an  average  he  can  by  no 
means  always  maintain  over  earth  roads,  he  must  spend  at 
least  thirty  days  a  year  in  merely  reaching  the  scenes  where 
his  professional  work  is  to  begin. 

5.  Difficulties  arising  through  the  lack  of  special  training 
on  the  part  of  county  superintendents.  To  all  these  numerous 
difficulties  of  rural  supervision  must  finally  be  added  those 
arising  through  the  lack  of  special  training  on  the  part  of 
superintendents.  These  are  so  buried  among  the  more  obvious 
hindrances  of  the  system  that  they  are  seldom  considered, 
but  when  the  latter  are  sufficiently  cleared  away  to  make 
room  for  professional  considerations,  superintendents  them- 
selves are  the  first  to  see  and  acknowledge  the  necessity  of 
such  preparation.     Clearly  no  one  could  need  the  advantages 


286   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


accruing  from  special  training  more  than  the  rural  super- 
visor, who  has  to  meet  not  only  all  the  special  problems  of 
pedagogy,  psychology,  and  child  nature  that  confront  any 
supervisor,  but  many  others  besides.  Yet  the  only  special 
training  now  possible  for  county  superintendents  is  that  ac- 
quired in  the  grim  school  of  experience.  No  normal  school 
or  educational  institution  in  the  United  States,  so  far  as  the 
writer  has  been  able  to  determine,  yet  provides  a  department 
for  work  of  this  type.  Some  institutions  are  beginning  to 
appreciate  the  new  demand  in  this  direction,  however,  and 
within  a  few  years  the  county  superintendents  may  probably 
obtain  as  expert  instruction  as  is  now  available  for  city  super- 
intendents. 

Systems  of  Rural  Supervision  Employed  in  the  United 
States.  Three  different  systems  of  country  school  super- 
vision are  employed 
throughout  the  United 
States.  These  may  be 
designated  as  the  town- 
ship system,  the  large  dis- 
trict system,  and  the 
county  system. 

The  New  England 
States,  with  their  cus- 
tomary emphasis  upon  the 
town,  or  township,  as  a 
political  unit,  naturally 
originated  the  township 
system  which  is  univer- 
sally employed  through- 
out this  section  except  in  Vermont.  Ohio,  also,  employs 
this  plan.  Under  this  system  provision  is  made  for  the 
union  of  several  townships  which  desire  to  avail  themselves 
of   the   privilege  of   supervision.     The   township   school    au- 


Maniial  Training  in  Whatcom 
County,  Washington 

An  example  of  the  efficient  leadership  of 
County  Superintendent  Mary  Carpenter 
of  Bellingham 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  287 

thorities  assume  the  initiative  in  entering  a  union  and  employ 
their  superintendents  wholly  upon  considerations  of  profes- 
sional ability,  just  as  teachers  and  city  superintendents  are  pre- 
sumably selected.  Those  employed  need  not  be  natives  of  the 
township,  and  may  retain  their  positions  indefinitely.  The 
system  thus  scores  the  tremendous  advantage  of  being  free 
from  political  bias  and  makes  possible  the  development  of  a 
regular  profession  of  supervisors  who  can  give  the  small  towns 
and  country  schools  of  the  state  the  same  expert  attention  as 
that  secured  by  large  cities. 

The  large  district  system  of  supervision  is  practiced  in 
New  York,  Louisiana,  Virginia,  and  Nevada.  In  each  of 
these  states  the  supervisory  districts  are  not  co-extensive  with 
counties,  being  sometimes  larger  and  sometimes  smaller. 
Louisiana,  retaining  the  influence  of  its  early  church  organ- 
ization, is  divided  into  parishes,  and  hence  has  parish  super- 
intendents. New  York  and  Virginia  are  divided  into  nu- 
merous districts  practically  equivalent  but  not  coincident  with 
their  counties,  while  the  state  of  Nevada  has  recently  abol- 
ished the  office  of  the  county  supervisor  and  divided  its 
territory  into  five  large  districts,  supervised  by  five  deputy 
state  superintendents. 

The  county  system  of  supervision,  employing  the  county 
as  a  unit  of  school  organization,  prevails  most  generally  in 
the  United  States,  being  followed  in  .thirty-nine  states  and 
two  territories.  In  these  states  the  county  educational  officer 
is  known  either  as  the  county  superintendent  or  county  com- 
missioner, but  will  be  referred  to  throughout  the  remainder 
of  this  discussion  as  the  county  superintendent.  The  county 
system  of  supervision  will  also  be  the  system  in  mind  in 
making  deductions  and  generalizations. 

Methods  of  Selecting  County  Superintendents.  The  dif- 
ferent methods  of  selecting  county  superintendents  are  even 
more  numerous  than  the  systems  of  districting,  and  in  their 


288   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

variation  clearly  indicate  a  general  dissatisfaction  and  de- 
sire for  improvement.  In  all,  there  are  six  ways,  two  of  which 
are  appointive  and  four  elective.  Selection  by  appointment 
prevails  in  Delaware,  Vermont,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia. 
In  the  two  states  first  named  appointments  are  made  by  the 
governor  and  state  superintendent ;  in  the  last  two  by  the 
state  board  of  education.  Selection  by  election  prevails  most 
generally.  In  the  great  majority  of  instances,  twenty-seven 
states  and  two  territories,  county  superintendents  are  elected 
by  direct  vote  of  the  people.  At  least  they  are  supposed  to 
be  so  chosen  if  party  favor  and  political  machines  can  be  dis- 
regarded. Two  states,  Indiana  and  Pennsylvania,  elect  their 
county  superintendents  by  the  vote  of  school  directors.  In 
Pennsylvania  this  is  done  triennially,  at  the  time  of  the  annual 
directors'  meeting.  In  Indiana  the  school  system  provides 
for  the  election  of  but  one  school  official,  or  school  trustee, 
in  each  township,  and  these  trustees  assembled  in  county 
convention,  elect  the  county  superintendent  for  a  term  of 
four  years.  Three  states — Louisiana,  North  Carolina,  and 
Maryland — provide  small  county  boards  of  education  whose 
chief  duty  is  the  selection  of  an  efficient  county  superin- 
tendent, and  one  state,  Tennessee,  trusts  the  county  court 
to  choose  its  school  supervisors. 

Qualifications  Required  of  County  Superintendents. 
Only  twenty-three  states  require  educational  qualifications  for 
county  superintendents,  and  in  these  the  requirements  are 
low,  being  usually  but  the  possession  of  a  first-grade  certifi- 
cate. Thirteen  states  demand  no  special  qualification  what- 
ever for  this  office.  Veterinaries  and  road-makers  must  meet 
certain  stipulations,  but  the  county  superintendency,  possibly 
the  most  important  office  in  the  educational  system,  may  be 
filled  utterly  regardless  of  special  fitness !  To  be  sure,  public 
opinion  always  dictates  a  certain  standard  of  efficiency  even 
in  states  making  no  legal   requirements,  but  exceptions  are 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  289 

possible,  and  not  a  few  exist.     Moreover,  legislation  should 
certainly  keep  better  pace  with  the  best  interests  of  education. 

Of  the  states  demanding  special  qualifications  for  county 
superintendents,  New  Jersey,  which  requires  a  state  certifi- 
cate, and  North  Dakota,  which  requires  superintendents  in 
counties  of  the  first  class  to  hold  a  state  certificate  or  to  be 
graduates  of  a  reputable  normal  school  or  higher  institution 
of  learning,  may  be  cited  as  examples  of  the  rapid  advance 
now  being  made  annually  in  the  improvement  of  rural  school 
supervision.  Indiana  requires  that  superintendents  shall  hold 
a  thirty-six  months'  state  license,  a  life  license,  or  a  profes- 
sional license.  In  Wisconsin,  rural  supervisors  are  required 
among  other  qualifications  to  hold  a  special  county  super- 
intendent's certificate.  This  seems  to  be  the  only  instance 
in  any  state  where  special  supervisory  ability  is  required. 
Other  states  stipulating  especially  high  qualifications  for 
county  superintendents  are  Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and 
Delaware. 

Increasing  the  Efficiency  of  the  County  Superintendency. 
Improving  the  system.  At  least  two  large  tasks  must  be 
accomplished  before  any  adequate  solution  of  the  problem 
of  country  school  supervision  can  be  realized.  The  first  of 
these  is  the  improvement  of  the  system.  The  initial  step  in 
this  attempt  must  be  some  scheme  for  decreasing  the  amount 
of  work  now  expected  of  the  county  superintendent.  A  be- 
ginning in  this  direction  has  been  made  in  many  counties  by 
the  employment  of  clerks  and  assistants,  which  is  good  in  so 
far  as  it  goes,  but  deficient  in  that  not  enough  assistants  are 
furnished.  Few  counties  allow  more  than  one  when  a  half 
dozen  could  be  well  occupied.  Several  counties  in  the  more 
densely  populated  sections  of  the  eastern  states,  however — 
notably  Baltimore  County,  ^laryland — have  developed  a  sug- 
gestive scheme  bearing  upon  this  point,  by  Vv^hich  special 
supervisors,  as  of  manual  training,  music,  and  primary  work, 


2CO        COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


•y 


are  employed  for  the  benefit  of  all  rural,  suburban,  and  vil- 
lage schools.  A  still  better  solution  for  western  and  southern 
states,  where  the  unit  of  county  organization,  though  incon- 
veniently large,  cannot  be  advisably  disregarded,  would  be  to 
section  the  counties  into  supervisory  districts  under  the  direc- 
tion of  assistant  superintendents  who  are  responsible  to  the 
county  superintendent.  Such  a  plan  embodies  all  the  advan- 
tages of  small  district  supervision  and  still  conforms  to  the 
present  political  organization. 

When  the  amount  of  work  required  of  county  superintend- 
ents is  reduced,  another  improvement  of  the  system  may  be 
realized  through  the  possibility  of  demanding  higher  qualifica- 
tions and  better  work.  Business  men  realize  the  necessity 
of  reducing  quantity  when  quality  is  desired,  and  the  same 
principle  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  work  of  the  county 
superintendent.  It  is  utterly  useless  to  attempt  to  exact  expert 
supervision  even  of  well  trained  men,  while  they  are  as 
deeply  buried  under  multitudinous  duties  as  is  the  average 
county  superintendent  at  present.  And  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
legislators  will  soon  see  the  folly  of  such  exaction  and  strike 
at  the  heart  of  the  present  difficulty,  not  by  uselessly  multi- 
plying duties  that  cannot  be  adequately  discharged, .  but  by 
taking  legal  steps  for  the  remodeling  of  the  system. 

Establishing  a  profession  of  county  superintendents.  The 
second  step  necessary  to  the  acquirement  of  an  efficient  sys- 
tem of  rural  supervision  is  the  establishment  of  a  profession 
of  county  superintendents.  This,  only,  will  enable  efficient 
men  and  women  to  stay  in  the  work  permanently,  and  to 
acquire  special  training  for  it.  But  before  this  desired  **sta- 
bility  of  status"  can  be  insured,  two  underlying  factors  must 
be  adjusted.  First,  the  present  scale  of  salaries  must  be 
increased;  and  second,  the  office  of  the  county  superin- 
tendency  must  be  divorced  from  politics. 

The  salaries  of  county  superintendents  in  the  United  States 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


291 


vary  from  less  than  $100  to  $5,000,  the  latter,  of  course,  being 
exceptional  and  found  only  in  the  counties  containing  great 
cities.  The  highest  regular  salaries  for  this  service  are  paid 
in  New  Jersey  and  F*ennsylvania,  where  the  annual  compen- 
sation for  county  superintendents  runs  from  two  to  three  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  majority  of  states  are  better  represented  by 
Illinois,  where  the  average  salary  is  $1,500  for  county  super- 
intendents, or  by  Wisconsin,  where  the  average  compensation 


County  Superintendent  Jessie  Field,  Page  County,  Iowa 

The  automobile  shown  was  won  by  Page  County  for  its  display  of  school  work 

at  the  National  Corn  Exposition  in  1909 


is  but  $9/0,  from  which  traveling  and  campaign  expenses  must 
be  deducted.  The  inadequacy  of  the  aggregate  sum  spent  for 
rural  supervision  in  most  states  is  well  illustrated  again  by 
Wisconsin,  in  which  the  largest  city,  Milwaukee,  with  an  en- 
rollment   of    39.000    elementary    school     children,    expends 


292 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


annually  about  $130,000  for  school  supervision,  while  the 
state  at  large,  exclusive  of  the  cities  having  city  superintend- 
ents, expends  only  $71,000  for  a  school  population  of  320,000. 
Here,  as  in  other  instances,  it  is  evident  that  the  money  ques- 
tion is  at  the  heart  of  the  difficulty.  Of  this  farmers  must 
soon  become  conscious  and  realize  that  adjustment  lies  largely 
in  their  hands. 

The  removal  of  political  infliience.  But  even  more  detri- 
mental than  economic  considerations  is  the  uncertain  tenure 
of  office  occasioned  among  county  superintendents  by  political 
selection.  The  zi'hole  plan  of  subjecting  educational  matters 
and  the  welfare  of  children  to  political  upheavals  is  entirely 
wrong.  What  difference  does  party  adherence  make  in  a 
man's  efficiency  for  judging  a  good  reading  lesson,  assisting 
a  teacher,  or  organizing  a  school?  Usually,  too,  the  county 
superintendent  must  be  not  only  a  member  of  the  predominant 
political  party  but  a  resident  of  the  county,  which  still  further 
decreases  the  efficiency  of  the  present  system  by  limiting  the 
number  of  available  candidates.  When  people  desire  medical 
or  legal  assistance,  they  are  not  restricted  to  the  talent  within 
their  own  town  or  county.  Why,  then,  should  such  restric- 
tion be  considered  in  seeking  educational  direction  and  select- 
ing school  supervisors?  Why  should  not  the  county  superin- 
tendent, like  the  city  superintendent,  be  chosen  upon  the  basis 
of  his  efficiency  without  regard  to  either  his  place  of  residence 
or  his  political  affiliation? 

Many  argue  that  efficient  superintendents  are  elected  not- 
withstanding the  evils  of  politics.  This  is  quite  true.  In 
states  demanding  no  qualifications,  good  men  are  commonly 
elected,  as  has  been  admitted,  through  the  strength  of  public 
opinion.  But  public  opinion  is  a  poor  guarantee  of  efficiency, 
especially  when  deflected  by  partisan  politics  and  ignored  in 
political  trades.  Moreover,  the  average  voter  too  often  votes 
his   party   ticket   without    further   consideration.      For   these 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


293 


reasons,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  political  plan  of  electing 
county  superintendents  is  ahvays  a  detriment. 

At  best  only  three  arguments  can  be  discovered  in  its  favor, 
and  these  can  be  met  equally  well  under  another  plan.  In 
the  first  place,  it  is  claimed  that  election  by  popular  vote  is 


Complimentary  Float  to  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern  of  Winnebago 

County,  Illinois 


democratic.  But  the  principle  of  representative  government, 
upon  which  our  republic  is  founded,  is  likewise  democratic, 
and  the  employment  of  county  superintendents  by  a  qualified 
educational  board  elected  by  the  people  would  meet  this  re- 
quirement equally  well.  Again,  it  is  argued  that  the  political 
campaign  necessitated  by  popular  election  is  a  good  thing,  in 


294 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


that  it  brings  the  county  superintendent  into  close  contact  with 
the  people  and  their  needs.  This  undoubtedly  is  true,  but  the 
same  insight  can  be  obtained  from  conducting  educational 
campaigns,  which  are  certainly  much  needed  and  a  far  more 
legitimate  expression  of  an  educational  leader's  endeavor. 
Finally,  it  is  sometimes  argued  that  the  present  method,  having 
been  practiced  in  some  states  for  the  past  two  generations, 
is  now  enshrined  in  our  political  heritage  and  should  there- 
fore be  retained.  But  this  argument  is  too  futile,  and  alto- 
gether too  unreasonable,  to  demand  attack. 

Thus  the  election  of  school  supervisors  by  popular  vote  is 
undesirable  in  every  way.  When  the  county  superintendent  is 
a  politician,  it  not  only  entails  all  the  evils  of  political  machines 
and  party  trades,  but  makes  political,  rather  than  educational, 
ability  the  criterion  of  success.  When  he  is  not  a  politician  it 
demands  time  and  energy  that  should  be  expended  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  schools.  Acceptable  as  this  system  may  be  in 
theory,  its  actual  application  in  practice  is  undesirable,  as  all 
know  who  have  come  in  contact  with  its  workings.  For  this 
reason  educators  everywhere,  and  even  the  majority  of  county 
superintendents  themselves,  are  beginning  to  demand  that 
the  office  be  removed  as  far  as  possible  from  political 
favoritism. 

The  Proper  Method  of  Selecting  County  Superintendents. 
One  of  the  best  systems  of  reorganization  for  this  purpose  is 
that  of  placing  the  employment  of  rural  supervisors  in  the 
hands  of  a  county  board  of  education  elected  by  the  people,  as 
is  now  done  in  North  Carolina.  This  board  should  consist 
of  from  five  to  nine  members,  possessing  certain  stipulated 
requirements  educationally.  Such  a  plan  in  general  meets 
with  almost  universal  favor  because  in  the  first  place  it  is 
democratic,  allowing  the  people  through  the  principle  of  repre- 
sentative government  to  select  their  own  superintendents,  but 
with   fewer   political   difficulties   and   less    friction   and   waste 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION  295 

than  at  present.  In  the  second  place,  it  harmonizes  with  the 
political  organization  of  all  states  where  the  county  is  the  unit 
of  state  administration.  And  in  the  third  place,  it  lends  per- 
manency to  the  office  of  the  county  superintendency  by  remov- 
ing it  from  direct  political  uncertainty  and  making  possible  the 
development  of  a  well-trained  profession  of  rural  school 
supervisors. 

In  application  this  system  should  further  provide  clerical 
help  and  plenty  of  assistants,  to  be  employed  also  by  the  county 
board,  but  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  county  superin- 
tendent. Each  county  might  then  be  subdivided  into  districts 
which  could  be  directly  and  closely  supervised  by  these  assist- 
ants, thus  insuring  the  close  supervision  practiced  in  New 
England  and  preserving  meanwhile  the  county  unit.  The 
tenure  of  office  should  be  at  least  four  years,  though  a  still 
better  plan  would  be  continuous  employment  during  compe- 
tency and  faithful  service.  Every  school  in  the  county  should 
also  be  connected  with  the  superintendent's  office  by  telephone, 
so  as  to  expedite  communication.  Under  such  provisions 
farmers  might  reasonably  demand  competent  school  supervi- 
sion, a  necessity  they  can  scarcely  hope  to  attain  under  present 
conditions. 

Leadership  of  the  County  Superintendent.  How  badly 
this  reform  is  needed  can  be  appreciated  only  by  considering 
the  opportunity  and  responsibility  of  the  county  superin- 
tendency. Of  all  educational  offices,  none,  as  has  been  shown, 
entails  greater  burdens,  and  none,  it  is  safe  to  say,  bears 
greater  responsibility.  Of  the  many  responsibilities  incum- 
bent upon  the  county  superintendent,  two  stand  out  especially 
as  primary  functions  of  his  office.  These  are  first,  his  respon- 
sibility for  the  proper  supervision  of  his  schools  and  teachers, 
and  second,  his  responsibility  for  the  educational  leadership 
and  status  of  his  county. 

No  one  could  do  more  under  favorable  conditions  for  all 


296   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

phases  of  rural  progress  than  the  county  superintendent,  since 
he  is  not  only  a  leader  but  a  leader  of  leaders.  Even  under 
present  limitations  no  one  can  do  more,  as  many  superin- 
tendents are  admirably  demonstrating  through  their  educa- 
tional campaigns.  In  Missouri  such  educational  campaigns 
are  legally  required  of  county  superintendents.  In  other  states, 
where  no  requirements  are  enforced,  many  superintendents  by 
giving  less  attention  to  the  clerkship  of  their  office  and  more 
to  educational  leadership,  have  done  a  great  deal,  notwith- 
standing their  countless  duties.  One  of  the  best  known  ex- 
amples of  these  instances  where  efficient  men  have  made  a 
small  office  big  is  Superintendent  O.  J.  Kern's  work  in  Winne- 
bago County,  Illinois,  which  is  described  in  his  book.  Among 
Country  Schools.  Another  interesting  record  of  what  train- 
ing, personality,  and  general  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the 
superintendent  can  do  for  a  county  is  shown  in  the  leadership 
of  County  Superintendent  Jessie  Field,  of  Clarinda,  Page 
County,  Iowa.  Numerous  other  instances  of  the  good  work  of 
county  superintendents  might  be  cited  here  as  well  as  numerous 
instances  of  their  poor  work.  But  notwithstanding  the  just 
cause  for  criticism  and  complaint  against  some,  it  must  be 
acknowledged  remarkable,  considering  the  difficulties  of  the 
system,  that  the  present  good  service  is  rendered.  And  in  all 
criticism  of  county  superintendents  it  must  be  remembered  that 
not  the  men  but  the  system  is  chiefly  at  fault. 

Inspiration  and  Help  for  County  Superintendents.  In- 
creased salaries.  In  the  meantime,  inspiration  and  help  for 
county  superintendents  is  already  at  hand,  and  much  of  it  is 
easily  available  for  those  who  care  to  use  it.  Not  the  least 
needed  and  tangible  of  this  assistance  is  the  recent  increase 
in  the  scale  of  salaries  in  many  states.  This  question  of  salary- 
is  considered  by  some  the  most  vital  point  in  the  improve- 
ment of  rural  supervision,  though  it  is  evident  that  the  finan- 
cial phase  will  eventually  adjust  itself  when  the  work  once 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


297 


becomes  a  permanent  profession  demanding  higher  qualifica- 
tions and  better  preparation.  One  matter  of  financial  con- 
sideration calls  for  special  attention.  This  is  the  lack  of  pro- 
vision in  many  states  for  meeting  the  traveling  expenses  of 
county  superintendents.  Four  states  at  least — Minnesota,  Wis- 
consin, California,  and  New  Jersey — have  seen  the  injustice 
of  this  situation  and  now  authorize  counties  to  meet  the 
expense  of  their  superintendents. 

Assistance  from  state  departments  of  education.     The  chief 
general  sources  of  assistance  for  county  superintendents  are  the 


School  Directors'  Convention,  Goodhue  County,  Minnesota 


state  departments  of  education.  All  state  superintendents 
assist  their  county  superintendents,  at  least  personally,  and  in 
many  states  this  aid  is  definite  and  well  organized.  Some- 
times, as  in  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Louisiana,  and  North  Caro- 
lina, it  is  provided  through  the  employment  of  state  rural  school 
inspectors.  In  Wisconsin,  where  this  office  was  first  created, 
the  inspector  is  appointed  by  the  state  superintendent  and  serves 
during  efficiency  and  good  conduct.  His  duties  include  school 
inspection,  at  least  to  an  extent  sufficient  to  make  him  familiar 


298   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

with  conditions  throughout  the  state ;  the  collection  and  dis- 
tribution of  information  relating  to  rural  schools ;  and  the 
conducting  of  educational  campaigns  and  frequent  confer- 
ences with  county  superintendents,  teachers,  and  school  pa- 
trons. He  is  thus  in  a  position  to  make  his  influence  widely 
felt  and  to  act  as  a  general  counselor  and  assistant  for  county 
superintendents. 

Again,  as  in  Illinois,  the  assistant  state  superintendent  is 
considered  the  head  of  a  special  department  for  country 
schools  and  performs  practically  the  same  duties  as  the  state 
rural  school  inspector.  In  other  states,  particularly  in  In- 
diana and  Wisconsin,  the  state  superintendent  keeps  in  con- 
tact with  his  county  superintendents  and  even  with  his  rural 
teachers  by  issuing  bulletins  for  each.  Perhaps  the  most  help- 
ful form  of  cooperation  on  the  part  of  state  and  county  super- 
intendents is  that  effected  through  state  conferences  and  asso- 
ciations for  county  superintendents.  Minnesota,  Oregon,  Mis- 
souri, Illinois,  Washington,  and  North  Carolina  hold  annual 
conventions  of  this  type,  and  report  great  progress  from  them. 
In  Illinois  yearly  conferences  of  county  superintendents  are 
held  under  the  direction  of  the  state  superintendent  at  the 
various  normal  schools.  The  benefit  of  these  conferences  as 
mediums  for  the  interchange  of  ideas  is  self-evident. 

The  Chief  Need.  In  conclusion,  the  effect  of  the  growth 
of  the  consolidated  country  school  system  upon  rural  super- 
vision should  be  noted.  Something  of  the  meaning  of  this 
movement  to  country  children,  teachers  and  farmers  has  been 
shown  in  former  chapters.  Its  influence  upon  the  county 
superintendency  is  equally  beneficial.  To  county  superin- 
tendents the  consolidated  school  system  will  mean  in  brief 
the  disappearance  of  all  the  difficulties  of  supervision  due 
to  the  inconveniences  of  the  ungraded  system,  discussed  in  the 
earlier   part   of   this   chapter ;    fewer   and   better   teachers   to 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


299 


supervise ;  fewer  school  officers  to  instruct ;  less  isolation  to 
combat  and  fewer  miles  to  travel ;  and  a  more  enlightened 
patronage  with  better  school  spirit.  All  of  which  is  con- 
ducive to  better  supervision  and  to  progress  of  every  kind. 

In  further  summary  of  this  theme,  let  it  be  repeated  that 
what  the  country  needs  in  the  way  of  school  supervision 
is  a  profession  of  county  superintendents.  But  such  a  pro- 
fession can  never  arise  while  the  system  is  saturated  and  con- 
trolled by  political  influence.    This,  to  be  sure,  is  not  the  only 


A  Subject  for  School  Legislation 


reform  needed,  but  certainly  so  long  as  "political  affiliation, 
political  availability,  place  of  residence,  and  party  political 
dominance,  considerations  which,"  as  Professor  EUwood  P. 
Cubberly,  of  Stanford  University,  says,  "have  no  more  to 
do  with  a  man's  ability  to  be  an  educational  leader  than  the 
church  he  belongs  to,  the  age  of  his  wife,  the  name  of  his 
baby,  or  the  size  of  the  shoes  he  wears" — so  long  as  these 
determine  the  selection  of  county  superintendents,  little  prog- 
ress can  be  expected.    Partisan  control  is  the  curse  of  country 


300 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


school  supervision,  and  for  its  correction  there  is  but  one 
cure :  Take  the  office  of  the  county  superintendent  out  of 
politics — there  is  no  other  way. 

The  Duty  of  Teachers  to  County  Superintendents.  What 
has  been  said  in  this  chapter  against  the  present  system  of 
rural  supervision  should  by  no  means  be  interpreted  as  a  criti- 
cism of  county  superintendents,  or  as  a  suggestion  for  disloyalty 
on  the  part  of  country  teachers.  In  the  experience  of  the 
author  no  servants  in  the  educational  field  are  upon  the  whole 
more  earnest  in  their  professional  attitude  or  more  courageous 
in  standing  for  the  best  welfare  of  children  than  are  county 
superintendents.  Teachers  should  consider  the  peculiar  handi- 
caps under  which  the  county  superintendent  is  placed,  remem- 
bering, that  his  difficulties  are  even  greater  than  their  own,  and 
should  at  all  times  give  him  their  most  loyal  support  and  co- 
operation in  furthering  the  educational  welfare  of  the  county. 
In  this  way  only  can  unity  and  progress  be  maintained  through- 
out the  schools  of  the  state. 

Some  Other  Legislative  Measures  Needed  for  Country 
Schools.  Supervision  is  by  no  means  the  only  rural 
educational  reform  needing  legislative  attention.  Numerous 
other  issues  might  receive  attention  here  but  for  lack  of  space. 
No  phase  of  education,  in  fact,  demands  more  attention  than 
legislation,  since  it  may  be  considered  the  basis  of  all  prog- 
ress. But  in  the  country,  at  least,  no  phase  is  so  much 
neglected,  as  is  commonly  illustrated  by  the  disregard  of 
statutes  for  compulsory  education.  A  new  awakening  is  com- 
ing in  this  matter,  however,  even  among  farmers,  and  the 
future  promises  well. 

Two  measures  of  general  agitation  in  this  connection  are 
consolidation  and  the  township  unit.  By  the  township  unit  is 
meant  the  effort  to  discard  the  local  small  district  and  organ- 
ize all  the  schools  of  a  township  under  one  board.  This  plan 
wherever   tried   has   been    found   less   expensive,   more   con- 


COUNTRY  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION 


301 


venient,  and  conducive  to  consolidation.  ]\Iore  laws  have  been 
passed  on  consolidation  in  the  last  ten  years  than  upon  any 
other  school  question.  Most  of  this  has  related  to  transporta- 
tion. There  are  still  several  states,  however — among  others, 
Illinois — where  no  legislation  for  transportation  is  yet  pro- 
vided and  where  an  effective,  determined  campaign  is  needed 
on  this  question.  IMinnesota  and  Oklahoma  have  gone  fur- 
ther and  set  a  splendid  example  for  the  encouragement  of 
consolidation  by  giving  state  aid  to  districts  w4iich  unite. 

A  few  other  desirable  measures  may  be  only  glanced  at 
here.  Indiana  is  raising  the  standard  of  teaching  by  requiring 
both  country  and  town  teachers  to  be  high  school  graduates 
and  to  have  at  least  twelve  weeks  of  professional  training. 
Wisconsin  and  ^Minnesota  now  offer  one  hundred  fifty  dol- 
lars of  state  aid  annually  to  all  country  schools  meeting  first 
class  requirements ;  and  Wisconsin  further  provides  for  the 
condemnation  of  poor  schoolhouses.  Several  states,  notably 
Oregon  and  jMinnesota,  have  lately  passed  effective  legisla- 
tion insuring  compulsory  attendance  on  the  part  of  country 
children.  Another  of  the  best  measures  in  recent  school  legis- 
lation is  that  providing  for  county  school  board  or  directors' 
conventions.  Pennsylvania,  Washington,  Indiana,  Wisconsin, 
and  Alinnesota  are  among  the  states  w^hich  have  availed 
themselves  of  this  immeasurable  benefit.  In  most  states  the 
law  also  provides  mileage  and  a  compensation  of  two  dollars 
per  day  for  attendance  at  these  meetings.  In  all  these  and 
countless  other  unnamed  reforms  is  heralded  the  coming  of 
a  better  day  for  children  of  the  farm. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 

Character  of  the  Movement.  The  Country  Life  Move- 
ment is  essentially  a  movement  from  the  ground  up.  It  is 
not  in  any  sense  an  ''uplift"  and  is  never  so  regarded  by 
those  who  are  a  native  part  of  it.  Long  before  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  Federal  Commission  on  Country  Life  this  move- 
ment had  its  beginnings  in  the  needs  and  reflections  of  the 
men  and  women  of  the  farm.  Its  first  stirrings  were  occa- 
sioned largely  by  the  necessity  for  economic  betterment  arising 
from  land  waste  and  depletion.  This  need  soon  awakened  a 
desire  for  agricultural  science,  and  little  else  has  been  heeded 
by  farmers  until  lately.  Recent  rural  developments,  however, 
place  strong  emphasis  upon  the  social  phase  of  country  life. 
Not  the  early  command,  ''better  farming,"  not  the  later  dual 
injunction,  "better  farming  and  better  business,"  but  the  fully 
completed  mandate,  "better  farming,  better  business,  and  bet- 
ter living,"  is  now  its  slogan.  So  strong  is  this  human  empha- 
sis within  the  last  few  years  that  practically  every  agricultural 
meeting  that  convenes,  whatever  its  initial  purpose,  soon  finds 
itself  astray  upon  rural  social  questions;  and  every  agency 
for  country  life  betterment  at  last  recognizes  this  phase  as 
one  of  paramount  importance. 

In  no  development  of  our  national  life  is  there  now  more 
widespread,  general  interest  than  in  the  Country  Life  Move- 
ment. The  city  office  clerk  dreams  of  a  small  farm  as  an  ark 
of  financial  safety ;  the  member  of  the  urban  chamber  of  com- 
merce sees  untold  possibilities  for  both  country  and  city  in  the 

302 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


303 


upbuilding  of  the  soil ;  while  the  farmer  himself  stands  a  little 
straighter  and  views  the  world  even  more  independently  than 
before.  From  Maine  to  Florida,  and  from  Florida  to  Wash- 
ington, the  line  of  greatest  interest  and  attention  follows  the 
demand  for  an  improved  agriculture  and  better  country  life. 
But  while  of  great  sweep  and  generality,  this  interest  is  suffi- 
ciently  localized   to   be   practical.     West,    South,    East,    and 


■.'^i^^^^^B^B 

4. 

1:- 

*     '  <  *  "   1 

m''m 

jL 

tS 



%  ^?i(t 

Conference  of  Rural  Social  Workers,  College  of  Agriculture, 

Amherst,  Massachusetts 


IMiddle  West — each  section  has  its  problems  which  it  is  solv- 
ing in  terms  of  its  own  viewpoints  and  conditions.  There  is 
little  imitation  and  no  loss  of  individuality.  This  proves  the 
sincerity  of  the  movement  and  the  wisdom  of  its  direction. 

Some  Developments  of  the  Country  Life  ]\Iovement 

Work  of  the  State  College  of  Agriculture. — The  chief 
agency  in  this  reaction  of  interest  back  to  the  land  has  been 
the  state  college  of  agriculture.     The  profound  influence  of 


304   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

the  agricultural  college  not  only  upon  farm  welfare  but  upon 
the  whole  philosophy  of  national  education  is  quite  beyond 
measure.  Of  the  many  organizations  now  existent  within 
this  field  of  rural  service  two  stand  out  especially.  The  Grad- 
uate School  of  Agriculture^  is  a  short  course  convening  every 
other  summer  at  one  of  the  best  state  colleges  of  agriculture, 
which  calls  together  the  presidents  and  leaders  of  these  insti- 
tutions for  the  exchange  of  professional  thought.  Though 
seemingly  far  removed  from  actual  farmers,  this  school  and 
the  Association  of  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, which  meets  annually  for  the  dissemination  and  en- 
couragement of  advanced  agricultural  science,  in  stimulating 
the  fountain  source  of  applied  agriculture,  in  the  end  very 
directly  afifect  the  man  behind  the  plow%  as  does  everything 
connected  with  the  state  college  of  agriculture. 

The  social  side  of  farm  life  has  been  a  second  thought  with 
colleges  of  agriculture  but  is  now  beginning  to  hold  their 
attention.  In  this  line  the  jNIassachusetts  State  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Amherst,  under  the  direction  of  President  Ken- 
yon  L.  Butterfield,  is  a  recognized  leader.  During  the  past 
few  years  this  college  has  developed  what  is  known  as  ''The 
Amherst  I^Iovement."  The  special  feature  of  this  movement 
is  a  five  weeks'  Summer  School  of  Agriculture  and  Country 
Life,  closing  annually  with  a  Conference  of  Agricultural  Edu- 
cators and  Rural  Social  Workers.  Instruction  in  technical 
agriculture  is  offered  at  this  session,  but  a  large  proportion 
of  the  work  relates  to  the  sociological  phases  of  country  life. 
Courses  in  agricultural  economics,  country  church  welfare, 
agricultural  cooperation,  rural  sociology,  rural  school  prob- 
lems, and  rural  literature  are  offered.  At  the  summer  school 
of  1910  thirteen  states  were  represented  by  the  student  body. 

1  All  organizations  mentioned  in  this  chapter  are  listed  in  the  rural 
progress  directory  of  this  book,  with  the  addresses  of  officials  from 
whom  further  information  may  be  obtained. 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


305 


Influence  of  Machinery.  Machinery  has  been  another 
large  factor  in  the  development  of  the  Country  Life  Alove- 
ment.  The  influence  of  invention  upon  modern  agriculture 
is  a  matter  beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  younger  gen- 
eration of  farmers  for  lack  of  contrast.  The  great  staple 
crops,  corn  and  wheat,  are  now  almost  thoroughly  subjugated 
to  the  control  of  steam  and  steel.     Cotton  alone  has  remained 


The  Cotton  Harvester 


unconquered  throughout  the  years  of  invention  since  Whitney 
first  devised  his  rude  gin.  But  the  closing  decade  of  the 
new  century  has  just  witnessed  an  invention  which  promises 
to  bring  the  final  triumph  in  the  conquest  of  the  great  white 
crop.  This  sensitive  mechanism,  so  delicate  in  adjustment  as 
to  pass  over  a  ripening  field,  gathering  the  fiber  and  leaving 
the  green  bolls  unharmed,  is  the  product  of  twenty  years  of 


3o6   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

courage  and  endeavor  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Angus  Campbell, 
a  machinist  of  Chicago.  Though  not  yet  in  common  use,  no 
words  can  prophesy  the  revolution  which  this  machine,  if 
fully  successful,  is  destined  to  inaugurate  in  the  cotton  grow- 
ing regions  of  the  South.  No  single  human  contribution  could 
do  more  for  the  development  of  this  section.  For  the  cotton 
harvester,  like  the  wheat  "combine,"  would  mean  not  only  eco- 
nomic gain  and  the  reduction  of  field  labor,  but  better  schools, 
better  homes,  a  happier  people,  and  the  basis  of  a  new  rural 
civilization.  A  fuller  story  of  this  remarkable  invention  is 
told  in  the  World's  Work  for  December,  1910. 

Business  Organization.  The  high  cost  of  living,  which 
has  lately  provoked  so  much  alarm  and  discussion,  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  inadequacy  of  crop  production.  But  farmers, 
economists,  and  all  others  who  study  the  matter  carefully  are 
coming  to  agree  that  this  international  phenomena  is  due 
chiefly  to  an  inefficient  system  of  distribution  rather  than  to 
inadequate  production.  For  this  reason  the  middleman  ques- 
tion has  become  an  issue  of  national  consideration,  and  many 
of  the  leading  developments  of  the  Country  Life  Movement 
have  come  about  through  the  desire  of  farmers  for  better 
business  methods.  Two  great  national  organizations,  the 
Farmers'  Union  and  the  American  Society  of  Equity,  have 
been  founded  upon  this  need.  As  a  study  in  local  business 
cooperation,  the  Hood  River  Fruit  Growers'  Association  of 
Oregon  shows  something  of  future  possibilities.  This  organi- 
zation provides  for  the  picking,  sorting,  packing,  and  dis- 
posal of  fruit,  and  is  said  by  students  of  agricultural  economics 
to  afford  one  of  the  best  examples  of  business  cooperation  to 
be  found  among  American  farmers. 

Agricultural  Legislation.  The  need  for  proper  and  ex- 
peditious agricultural  legislation  is  another  of  the  large  prob- 
lems blocking  the  road  to  rural  progress.  In  Denmark,  where 
the  farmers  are  also  the  chief  lawmakers,  we  have  a  worthy 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT  307 

example  of  the  service  such  provision  can  render  not  only 
rural  but  national  interests.^     American   farmers  have  long 
been  conscious  of  this  problem,  however,  and  are  doing  much 
to  correct  it.     Every  agricultural  convention  that  meets  sets 
forth  its  legislative  desires  in  unmistakable  terms.     Aluch  of 
this    demand   is    still   unanswered,   but   here    and   there    con- 
crete political  action  worthy  of  note  is  made  by  farmers  and 
agricultural  legislators.     An  interesting  example  of  this  out- 
growth is  the  Farmers'  Legislative  Club  of  Illinois.     This  is 
an  organization   formed  within  the  state  legislature   for  the 
legal  advancement  of  agricultural  interests.     Its  membership 
consists  of  about  seventy  members,  many  of  whom  are  actual 
farmers.    The  efforts  of  this  club  are  openly  centered  in  fur- 
thering  legislative  measures    for   the   benefit   of   agriculture, 
and  its  action  thus   far  has  proved  highly  conducive  to  the 
state's  best  welfare. 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  South.  In  no  section 
of  the  United  States  is  the  Country  Life  I^Iovement  charged 
with  greater  significance  and  earnestness  than  in  the  South. 
This  is  but  proper  and  natural  since  nine-tenths  of  the  south- 
ern population  live  under  rural  conditions.  Probably  the 
best  known  and  most  fundamental  of  these  efforts  is  the  soil 
renovation  work  of  the  late  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Recognizing  the 
dependence  of  all  rural  well-being  upon  the  conservation  of 
soil  fertility,  Dr.  Knapp,  through  his  Farmers'  Cooperative 
Demonstration  Work,  has  instituted  an  agricultural  reform 
destined  to  make  the  South  a  crop  producing  region  of  un- 
dreamed wealth.  This  work  is  wholly  educational  in  charac- 
ter and  practical  in  operation.  Under  its  plan  government 
workers  induce  local  farmers  to  till  a  single  acre  or  more  of 
their  own  land  according  to  official  directions.    This  acre  then 

1  See  an  article  by  F.  C.  Howe,  entitled  "A  Commonwealth  Ruled  by 
Farmers,"  in  the  Outlook  94:441-50. 


3o8   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


becomes  a  demonstration  farm  and  the  farmer  a  cooperator. 
Seed  is  furnished  him,  and  his  name  is  pubHshed  in  the  local 
papers.  While  the  crop  grows  a  field  agent  of  the  govern- 
ment inspects  it  each  month.  Upon  the  occasion  of  his  visits 
neighbors  are  called  in  to  hear  what  the  inspector  has  to  say. 
When  the  crop  is  harvested  a  full  report  of  the  yield  and 
method  is  made  in  the  county  paper.  By  this  time  the  original 
cooperating  farmer  has  become  a  local  leader,  speaker,  and 
man  of  note,  who  cannot  return  to  his  old  ways ;  and  others 
are  convinced.  This  splendid  work  has  now  been  in  opera- 
tion eight  years.     In  the  year   1909  it  required  the  services 

of  430  agents,  operated  60,000 
demonstration  plots,  and  en- 
rolled 75,000  farmers.  In  the 
same  year  the  estimated  gain 
to  southern  agriculture  was 
$4,000,000.  In  addition  to 
this,  46,000  boys  are  enrolled 
in  a  special  school  phase  of 
the  work,  formerly  referred 
to.     (See  page  232.) 

Another  leading  rural  move- 
ment of  the  South  is  the  an- 
nual   Rural    Life    Conference 
held   since    1908  at  the   Uni- 
versity   of    Virginia.      These 
gatherings  call  forth  the  best 
talent  of  the  South,  and  their 
influence   is    already   measur- 
able  in    a    new    courage   and 
better  living  in  many  southern 
communities.     The  most  difficult  factor  conditioning  southern 
agriculture  is  the  large  negro  population.     Two  rural  move- 
ments looking  to  the  betterment  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned 


Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp 

Originator  of  the  Southern  Farmers' 
Cooperative   Demonstration   Work 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT  309 

here.  One  of  these,  the  Anna  T.  Jeanes  Foundation,  embodies 
a  plan  for  the  improvement  of  negro  rural  schools.  A  second 
effort  toward  the  same  end  dealing  with  adult  negro  farmers  is 
another  of  Dr.  S.  A.  Knapp's  successful  experiments  known  as 
the  Farmers'  Improvement  Society  of  Texas.  This  organiza- 
tion is  conducted  along  lines  similar  to  the  demonstration  work 
formerly  described  and  has  as  its  aim  the  teaching  of  scientific 
farming  and  better  business  methods  to  this  needy  class  of 
soil-tillers. 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  East.  The  East, 
more  especially  the  Xew  England  States,  is  another  section 
awakening  to  a  renewed  interest  in  things  agricultural.  The 
notable  feature  of  rural  life  progress  here  is  its  social  em- 
phasis. In  no  other  part  of  the  country  are  farmers  so  con- 
scious of  the  benefits  of  social  and  economic  cooperation  as 
in  New  England.  This  readiness  to  cooperate,  although  un- 
doubtedly due  to  the  pressing  demands  of  the  cities,  reveals 
a  high  stage  of  agricultural  advancement.  The  scientific 
leadership  of  the  Massachusetts  College  of  Agriculture  in  the 
analysis  and  direction  of  this  social  growth  has  been  referred 
to.  Another  development  which  shows  the  predominance  of 
this  viewpoint  is  the  Xew  England  Conference  for  Rural 
Progress.  This  conference  has  convened  annually  since  1906, 
during  which  time  seventy  different  farm  life  organizations 
have  been  voted  into  it.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  New 
England  farmers  have  come  to  appreciate  the  benefits  of  con- 
certed action.  By  way  of  explanation  it  may  be  said,  how- 
ever, that  no  small  proportion  of  this  unusual  social  leader- 
ship is  due  to  the  insight  and  vision  of  President  Kenyon  L. 
Butterfield,  who  stands  in  the  foremost  rank  of  rural  sociolo- 
gists and  for  whose  possession  New  England  is  to  be  heartily 
congratulated. 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  West.  In  the  Far 
West,  characteristically  epitomizing  the  native  spirit  of  mar- 


310   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

velous  attainment,  is  the  International  Dry  Farming  Con- 
gress, looking  particularly  to  the  introduction  of  scientific 
methods  of  agriculture  in  the  semi-arid  sections  of  the  United 
States  and  other  countries.  The  chief  interest  of  this  con- 
gress thus  far  through  the  five  years  of  its  existence  has  been 
centered  almost  entirely  upon  agricultural  science.  But  social 
issues  are  now  being  entered  upon  its  programs,  and  it  is 
fast  becoming  the  nucleus  of  a  complete  country  life  move- 
ment for  this  section.  The  International  Congress  of  Farm 
Women,  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Dry  Farming  Congress 
in  191 1,  was  a  worthy  recognition  of  the  place  and  responsi- 
bility of  women  in  country  life  development. 

The  Country  Life  Movement  in  the  Middle  West. 
Through  all  this  general  interest  in  country  life,  there  has 
not  as  yet  grown'  up  a  voluntary  federated  organization  of 
full  national  scope.  This  is  due  probably  to  the  fact  already 
pointed  out,  that  the  Country  Life  ^Movement  is  chiefly  of 
local  impetus.  Its  growth  has  been  nourished  in  the  soil  and 
has  not  yet  had  sufficient  time  to  bear  fruit  in  national  terms. 
This  proper  rooting  is  most  fortunate,  and  great  care  should 
be  exercised  by  those  responsible  for  the  development  of  the 
movement  to  prevent  its  injury  by  political  exploitation  or 
other  blight.  But  in  the  absence  and  need  of  a  central  na- 
tional organization  for  agriculture,  it  is  inevitable  that  some 
organization  of  lesser  rank  should  be  used  as  a  gathering 
point.  This  responsibility  has  been  temporarily  thrust  upon 
the  National  Corn  Association,  an  organization  instituted  by 
corn  growers  and  relating  originally  to  the  Middle  West.  The 
recent  remarkable  and  varied  development  of  this  organiza- 
tion is  for  this  reason  peculiarly  significant. 

The  Fourth  Annual  National  Corn  Exposition  lately  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Corn  Association  in  Co- 
lumbus, Ohio  (February,  1911),  was  much  more  than  a 
corn  show  or  an  agricultural  exposition.     It  was,   in  brief, 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


311 


a  great  national  country  life  convention  attacking  the  prob- 
lem of  rural  welfare  from  every  side.  In  its  management 
several  notes  of  progress  were  struck.  One  of  these  was  the 
reduction  of  exploitational  and  entertainment  features. 
Another  was  the  emphasis  on  the  educational  side  of  the 
exhibits,  as  illustrated  in  the  showing  of  the  most  advanced 
scientific  work  of  thirty-seven  state  experiment  stations.  A 
third  was  the  strong  sociological  tendency  of  the  meeting, 


Rural  Life  Conference,  University  of  Virginia,  Charlottesville 

which  culminated  during  the  last  week  in  a  national  Rural  Life 
Conference,  in  which  every  phase  of  rural  community  life  was 
discussed,  and  for  which  the  leading  rural  sociologists  and 
economists  of  the  country  were  convened.  Upon  the  whole, 
this  last  annual  meeting  of  the  Corn  Association  was  prob- 
ably the  most  magnificent  celebration  ever  conducted  in  honor 
of  agriculture.  But  especially  significant  was  its  reflection 
of  the  need  and  demand  of  rural  life  workers  for  some  demo- 
cratic organization  of  national  scope  to  serve  as  a  unifying 


312   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

center  for  their  complete  interests,  social  and  economic,  as 
well  as  technically  agricultural.  The  request  from  this  vol- 
untary organization  asking  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey,  ex-chair- 
man of  the  Country  Life  Commission,  to  appoint  a  new 
informal  Committee  on  Country  Life,  which  in  the  absence  of 
official  action  might  serve  as  a  national  center  for  country 
life  interests,  is  unprecedented  in  the  history  of  agriculture. 

International  Institute  of  Agriculture.  Crowning  all  this 
local,  state,  and  national  effort  for  country  life  improvement 
is  an  organization  of  international  scope,  which  though  as 
yet  comparatively  unknown,  embodies  notable  possibilities. 
This  is  the  International  Institute  of  Agriculture,  founded  at 
Rome,  in  1905,  chiefly  through  the  energy  of  an  American, 
Mr.  David  Lubin,  of  Sacramento,  California,  and  the  enlisted 
cooperation  of  the  King  of  Italy.  Forty-eight  nations  orig- 
inally subscribed  to  this  venture,  and  King  Victor  Emman- 
uel has  since  erected  a  beautiful  building  for  the  special  use 
and  permanent  headquarters  of  its  delegates.  The  large  aim 
of  the  International  Institute  of  Agriculture  is  to  serve  as  a 
coordinating  bureau  of  agricultural  information  among  the 
world  powers.  A  chief  immediate  purpose  is  to  furnish  in- 
formation concerning  the  supply  of  agricultural  products  as 
a  means  of  realizing  a  better  equity  of  distribution  and  prices. 
Another  purpose  is  to  foster  the  development  of  rural  eco- 
nomic cooperation,  and  still  a  third  aim  is  to  direct  the  flood 
of  immigration  in  the  channel  of  its  need  as  farm  labor. 
The  realization  of  these  and  various  other  undertakings  is 
attempted  largely  through  the  study,  collection,  and  publica- 
tion of  statistical  information.  Mere  mention  of  this  insti- 
tute can  be  made  here,  but  it  is  evident  that  immeasurable 
opportunity  for  good  lies  in  its  proper  development. 

The  Country  Life  Commission  and  Its  Work.  But  by 
far  the  most  influential  of  all  recent  movements  for  the 
redirection    of    American    farm    life    has    been    the    Federal 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT  313 

Commission  on  Country  Life.  Not  only  was  the  chairman- 
ship of  this  body  wisely  bestowed,  but  the  whole  personnel 
of  the  committee  could  scarcely  have  been  improved.  In  its 
membership  every  section  of  the  country  was  represented,  and 
various  opinions  and  viewpoints  were  carefully  balanced.  The 
combination  thus  effected  could  not,  and  did  not,  fail  to  pro- 
duce an  analysis  of  inestimable  value  to  the  whole  American 
people,  and  absolutely  vital  to  the  welfare  of  farmers. 

No  attempt  need  be  made  here  to  inculcate  the  conclusions 
of  this  comimission.  The  official  report  prepared  in  clear, 
readable  style  is  easily  obtainable  (see  bibliography,  page  389), 
and  every  one  connected  with  country  life  should  by  all  means 
procure  a  copy.  Farmers,  country  teachers,  and  country  min- 
isters, especially,  will  find  it  a  guide  and  incentive  to  action. 
For  this  and  and  for  the  great  good  that  has  come  of  their 
labor,  the  farm  men  and  women  of  the  United  States  owe  a 
special  debt  of  gratitude  to  these  men  of  the  commission. 
That  a  service  so  vital  to  the  well-being  of  half  the  national 
population  should  be  hampered  for  a  few  paltry  dollars,  how- 
ever, or  "read,  ordered  to  lie  on  the  table,  and  be  printed," 
is  a  bit  of  political  intrigue  for  which  all  who  know  the  facts 
are  righteously  indignant. 

Needs  of  the  Country  Life  Movement 

With  all  this  expenditure  of  energy  for  rural  welfare,  there 
are  certain  needs  of  the  Country  Life  INIovement  as  a  whole 
which  must  be  regarded  for  its  ultimate  success.  Four  of 
these  needs  are:  (a)  concreteness ;  (b)  federation;  (c)  lead- 
ership; (d)  and  idealism. 

Concreteness.  Any  movement  that  proves  permanent 
must  become  a  part  of  the  daily  life  of  the  people.  This  is 
especially  true  of  those  developments  that  pertain  to  the 
farm.  Unless  this  movement  for  rural  improvement  reaches 
down  and  fastens  its  roots  in  the  soil  by  helping  to  upbuild 


314   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

the  life  of  the  local  neighborhood,  it  is  therefore  doomed  to 
failure. 

Perhaps  the  best  expression  of  this  primal  obligation  is 
that  conveyed  by  the  phrase,  "country  community  building." 
The  necessity  for  the  regeneration  of  local  country  com- 
munities has  been  emphasized  in  considering  the  solution  of 
the  farm  problem  in  Chapter  I,  but  no  reference  other  than 
a  glance  at  actual  conditions  is  necessary  for  conviction.  All 
over  the  United  States  today,  notwithstanding  the  popularity 
of  the  Country  Life  Movement,  farmers  are  still  moving  to 
town  by  scores.  When  asked  for  an  explanation  the  reply  is 
unvaried:  To  obtain  the  advantages  of  the  town  which  are 
not  found  in  the  country.  The  necessity  of  instituting  definite 
concrete  effort  within  the  local  rural  community  which  shall 
bring  these  desired  advantages  to  the  very  door  of  the  farm 
is  thus  clearly  apparent.  In  this  w^ay  only  can  the  tide  of  city 
migration  be  stemmed  and  the  American  farm  problem  solved. 

At  this  point  let  the  reader  consider  for  a  moment  the  latent 
opportunities  of  the  average  fertile  farm  region  for  com- 
plete and  highly  developed  living.  Picture  near  the  center 
of  this  territory  a  large  and  thoroughly  equipped  consolidated 
country  school,  furnishing  a  redirected  education  with  a  high 
school  course.  Include  ten  acres  of  land  and  the  education 
of  adults.  Add  an  extra  room  or  two  or  a  separate  building, 
in  which  books,  bulletins,  crop  reports,  and  agricultural  data 
of  every  description  may  be  collected  and  made  available  for 
the  use  of  farmers  and  their  wives.  Employ  an  agricultural 
secretary,^  or  "farm  doctor/'  to  consult  with  farmers  upon  the 
difficulties  of  their  work.  Or,  better  yet,  employ  as  school 
principal  a  man  of  such  maturity,  training,  and  experience  that 
he  may  act  as  a  general  educational  and  agricultural  leader 
for  the  entire  community.    Add  a  prosperous  country  church, 

1  De  Kalb  County.  Illinois,  now  employs  such  an  agricultural  secretary 
who  spends  his  entire  time  in  advising  with  farmers  about  their  work. 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


315 


redirected  so  as  to  preach  religion  in  terms  of  country  life  and 
genuine  enough  to  unite  all  the  people  of  the  community  in 
spiritual  aspiration.  Then  introduce  a  true-principled  grange 
or  farmers'  club  for  social,  educational,  and  economic  co- 
operation, and  construct,  nearby  perhaps,  a  cooperative  labor 
plant  performing  the  functions  of  creamery,  laundry,  cannery, 
and  other  burdensome  labors  of  the  home.  Intersect  the 
whole  township  in  the  meantime  with  well  constructed,  well 
maintained,  and  attractively  improved  highw^ays  leading  back 


National  Corn  Exposition,  Columbus,  Ohio,  February,  T911 


to  comfortable,  modern  homes,  and  scientifically  tilled  farms — 
and  where  might  men  dwell  more  happily? 

Underlying  the  success  of  all  such  efforts  at  local  commu- 
nity building  are  a  few  general  principles  w^hich  may  be  stated 
here  by  way  of  summary. 

1.  Natural  centers  must  be  employed,  though  it  may  be 
necessary  to  define  the  community.  This  natural  center  may 
be  a  school  district,  a  village,  a  "neighborhood,"  or  some  nat- 
ural geographic  land  division.  In  level  prairie  states  the 
whole  township  may  well  be  included. 

2.  Local  farmer  leaders  must  be  enlisted  and  entrusted 
with  the  chief  initiative  and  responsibility.    These  lay  leaders 


3l6   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

may  be  stimulated  by  local  professional  leaders — that  is,  cler- 
gymen, teachers,  and  others — but  not  controlled  by  them.  The 
chief  mission  of  the  professional  leader,  as  later  pointed  out, 
is  to  awaken  and  encourage  leadership  on  the  part  of  farmers. 

3.  Every  individual  within  the  community  must  hold  the 
community  ideal.  More  is  said  on  this  vital  theme  in  suc- 
ceeding paragraphs  under  the  heading  of  idealism. 

4.  After  establishing  this  ''community  ideal" — that  is,  a 
picture  of  what  the  community  may  become  and  of  the  attrac- 
tions it  may  possess — definite,  concrete  tasks  miist  be  selected 
in  working  toward  it.  Upon  these  the  cooperative  effort  of  the 
whole  population  must  then  be  concentrated.  For  example,  if 
good  roads  are  needed,  the  whole  community,  every  man, 
woman,  and  child  in  the  population,  should  participate  in  a 
local  good  roads  campaign. 

5.  The  function  of  each  local  institution,  as  of  the  church, 
school,  family,  and  others  must  be  defined,  and  definite  indi- 
vidual programs  of  work  developed  for  their  guidance. 

6.  Local  forces  must  be  federated,  as  shown  later,  to  evolve 
these  institutional  programs  of  work  and  gain  strength  for 
the  tasks  of  improvement  undertaken. 

The  Federation  of  Rural  Forces.  In  any  undertaking 
involving  so  many  persons,  so  many  organizations,  and  so 
much  enthusiasm  as  the  Country  Life  Movement,  there  is  dan- 
ger of  waste  from  the  overlapping  and  duplication  of  effort. 
To  prevent  this  a  united  agreement  and  division  of  labor 
amonof  the  various  institutions  concerned  is  advisable.  This 
union,  or  working  harmony,  or  ''federation  of  rural  social 
forces,"  as  it  has  been  called,  is  further  to  be  desired  because 
the  rural  problem  in  its  complete  form  is  so  large  and  of  so 
many  phases  that  no  one  institution  is  capable  of  handling  it 
alone.  The  advantage  of  a  unified  attack  in  which  all  points 
of  view  are  represented  is  plainly  apparent. 

An  initial  step  in  securing  this  federation  of  country  life 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


317 


forces  will  be  a  careful  division  among  rural  social  institu- 
tions of  the  labor  necessary  for  progress.  This  will  necessi- 
tate a  series  of  broad  conferences  and  the  formulation  of  defi- 
nite programs  of  work  for  the  various  institutions  involved. 
The  country  church,  the  school,  the  family,  and  the  voluntary 


Country  Community  Exhibit 

Displayed  at  the  second  annual  Country  Life  Conference  of  the  Illinois 
Federation  for  Country  Life  Progress,  July,  1912 

farm  organization,  for  example,  must  each  work  out  a  line 
of  action  for  its  guidance,  based  on  the  scientific  principles 
of  social  progress  and  modified  by  the  presence  and  rights  of 
other  institutions. 

By  far  the  most  scientific  work  in  rural  federation  thus  far 
developed  is  that  inaugurated  in  different  places  through  the 


3i8    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

influence  and  thought  of  President  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield  of 
Massachusetts.  Of  these  personal  endeavors  of  President 
Butterfield's,  the  Rhode  Island  League  for  Rural  Progress 
came  first.  This  was  organized  in  1906  and  is  still  in  opera- 
tion. It  enrolls  all  the  rural  social  institutions  of  the  state 
and  holds  annual  progress  conferences  through  which  the 
responsibility  and  work-share  of  each  organization  is  deter- 
mined. As  the  climax  of  the  federative  idea  in  New  England 
stands  the  New  England  Conference  for  Rural  Progress, 
which  is  mentioned  in  another  connection  earlier  in  this 
chapter. 

Outside  Xew  England,  where  rural  social  consciousness  is 
most  acute,  the  federative  idea  has  had  little  organized  appli- 
cation. A  notable  exception  to  this  statement  is  found,  how- 
ever, in  the  Illinois  Federation  for  Country  Life  Progress.  In 
origin  and  method  of  organization  this  movement  is  unique. 
Federation  in  Illinois  has  been  a  growth  from  small  begin- 
nings, having  resulted  largely  through  the  activities  of  the 
Country  Teachers'  Association  of  Illinois.  The  organization 
of  the  Illinois  Federation  for  Country  Life  Progress  involves 
three  chief  features — namely,  an  Advisory  Council,  a  state 
Country  Life  Commission,  and  an  Executive  Committee.  The 
Advisory  Council  is  composed  of  "the  heads  of,  or  of 
duly  elected  delegates  from  the  various  state  organizations 
enrolled."  This  body  selects  the  members  of  the  Country 
Life  Commission,  affording  the  only  instance  thus  far  in 
rural  development  where  the  people  of  a  state  have,  as  it 
were,  provided  for  the  appointment  of  their  own  commis- 
sion without  official  suggestion  and  direction.  The  chief 
service  of  this  state  commission  lies  in  conducting  inves- 
tigations of  farm  life,  and  that  of  the  council  in  acting  as 
a  judiciary  to  determine  the  policy  of  the  federation.  There  is 
thus  provided  a  body  to  ascertain  the  truth  in  regard  to 
rural  conditions,  another  to  consider  these  facts  and  recom- 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


319 


mend  what  the  federation  can  do  to  reheve  undesirable  aspects, 
and  a  third  to  carry  out  these  recommendations. 

The  ambition  cherished  among  the  rural  progress  workers 
of  Illinois  is  to  make  this  movement  sufficiently  scientific  and 
practical  to  insure  the  best  success,  and  to  serve  as  a  sug- 
gestive method  of  procedure  for  other  states.  To  this  end 
a  carefully  considered  platform  of  things  advocated  was 
adopted  at  the  timie  of  organization,  together  with  the  motto, 
''Country  Community  Building,"  which  summarizes  in  a  sin- 
gle phrase  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  federation  and 
gives  the  keynote  of  its  work.  Xot  large  generalities  and 
exuberant  enthusiasm,  but  the  accomplishment  of  definite, 
concrete  tasks  in  the  local  country  community,  is  the  check 
which  the  Illinois  Federation  for  Country  Life  Progress  pro- 
poses to  put  upon  city  migration  and  the  Illinois  tenancy 
problem.  Through  the  platform  of  principles  referred  to, 
this  organization  advocates  the  following  measures : 

1.  Local  country  community  building. 

2.  The  federation  of  all  the  rural  forces  of  Illinois  in  one 
big  united  effort  for  the  betterment  of  country  life. 

J.  The  development  of  institutional  programs  of  action 
for  all  rural  social  agencies.  This  means  a  program  of  work 
for  the  school,  another  for  the  church,  another  for  the  fanners' 
institute,  and  so  forth. 

4.  The  stimulation  of  farmer  leadership  in  the  country 
community. 

5.  The  increase  and  improvement  of  professional  leader- 
ship among  country  teachers,  ministers,  and  all  others  who 
serve  the  rural  community  in  offices  of  educational  direction. 

6.  The  perpetuation  among  all  the  people  of  country  com- 
munities of  a  definite  community  ideal,  and  the  concentrated 
effort  of  the  whole  community  in  concrete  tasks  looking  tozcard 
the  realisation  of  this  ideal. 

y.     The  recognition   of  the  country  school  as  the  imme- 


320   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

diate  initiator  of  progress  in  the  average  rural  community  of 
Illinois. 

8.     The  study  and  investigation  of  country  life  facts  and 
conditions. 

p.     The  holding  of  annual  country  life  conferences. 

10.  The  protection  of  this  federation  and  of  all  country 
life  from  every  form  of  exploitation. 

The  first  of  the  annual  Country  Life  Conferences  provided 
for  in  this  platform  was  held  at  Normal,  Illinois,  July  13,  14, 
15,  191 1.  This  conference,  like  other  features  of  the  Dlinois 
Federation,  consistently  emphasized  the  upbuilding  of  the 
local  farm  community.  The  entire  program,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  numbers,  was  in  the  hands  of  Illinoisians,  and  the 
meeting  was  in  every  sense  a  getting-together  conference.  A 
special  feature  was  a  Country  Community  Exhibit,  showing 
graphically  the  work  of  various  local,  state,  and  national 
organizations  and  institutions  of  country  life. 

The  little  formal  federation  so  far  accomplished  in  this 
redirected  movement  toward  the  farm  has  been  of  local  or 
state  types.  But  in  a  complete  organization  of  country  life 
the  federation  of  state  agencies  is  not  adequate.  The  forces 
of  agriculture  have  national  aspects,  and  these,  also,  should 
be  organized  and  federated.  To  facilitate  this  there  is  need  of 
a  national  bureau  which  may  serve  as  a  clearing-house  for 
rural  social  work,  and  of  annual  or  biennial  national  confer- 
ences in  which  the  functions  and  correlation  of  rural  institu- 
tions may  be  worked  out.  In  the  opinion  of  President  Butter- 
field,  Dean  Bailey,  Sir  Horace  Plunkett,  and  other  students  of 
our  rural  social  situation,  this  Federal  Bureau  of  Country  Life 
should  be  designed  to  meet  all  the  needs  of  farm  life,  the 
social  and  economic,  as  well  as  the  technically  agricultural, 
which  are  now  so  well  handled  by  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. One  effort  of  the  bureau  should  be  the  collection  of  accu- 
rate facts  and  local  data  pertaining  to  farm  life.   Without  this 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


321 


information,  nothing  scientific  can  be  done  in  the  way  of 
improvement ;  in  fact,  much  of  the  failure  of  past  rural  under- 
takings can  be  traced  to  the  propensity  to  rely  upon  hearsay 
and  prejudice  in  the  absence  of  definite  data.  A  second  effort 
should  then  be  the  publicity  and  extension  work  necessary 
to  get  these  facts  before  the  public ;  and  a  third  line  of  work 
should  relate  to  the  federation  and  guidance  of  the  national 
interests  and  aspects  of  agriculture,  as   formerly  suggested. 


ifjujpjMJMra.A^^'-jpn 


The  Poetry  of  Country  Life 

Every  life  has  its  prose  and  poetry.     In 
this  country  life  is  no  exception 

But  whatever  its  plan,  it  is  clear  that  such  a  bureau  would 
further  farm  life  development  at  great  strides  and  that  through 
its  establishment  organized  campaigns  for  rural  progress  of 
unrealized  proportions  and  influence  would  be  possible. 

Leadership.  As  pointed  out  by  the  Country  Life  Commis- 
sion, all  this  work  in  rural  redirection  will  demand  much  lead- 
ership. In  no  field  are  leaders  more  needed.  For  some  time 
to  come  there  will  be  a  task  for  every  individual  who  aspires 


322 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


to  it,  especially  since  such  aspiration  in  the  rural  commu- 
nity is  pretty  sure  to  be  accompanied  by  peculiar  trials  and 
tribulations. 

Rural  leadership  may  be  considered  as  of  two  kinds — local 
and  large.  By  large  leadership  is  meant  the  particular  direc- 
tion of  affairs  in  state  and  national  government  that  shall 
work  for  better  equity  and  justice  toward  farmers.  The  con- 
tention here  is  not  for  agricultural  class  privileges.  Special 
privilege  of  many  kinds  is  already  proving  dangerous  to  our 
national  democracy,  and  farmers  must,  and  do,  for  the  most 
part,  fully  recognize  this  truth.  The  facts  of  the  case,  how- 
ever, are  that  the  inherent  rights  of  land  owners,  for  one 
reason  and  another,  have  been  much  over-ridden.  There  is 
need  for  agricultural  statesmen  of  insight  and  vision,  who 
Vv^ill  see  the  necessity  of  remedying  these  discrepancies  of  the 
law,  and,  in  response  to  this  vision,  will  serve  not  only  the 
forces  of  agriculture  but  all  national  forces. 

But  great  as  is  this  need  for  what  has  been  termed  large 
leadership  in  agriculture,  opportunities  for  local  eft'ort  are 
even  more  significant  and  plentiful.  Local  leadership  within 
the  farm  community  is  of  two  types — lay  and  professional. 
By  professional  leaders  in  this  connection  are  meant  those 
who  serve  the  country  community  in  offices  of  educational 
direction,  as  teachers  and  ministers.  The  men  and  women 
now  in  this  field  carry  a  tremendous  responsibility  just  at 
this  juncture  of  national  development.  Into  their  hands  for 
the  next  decade  is  entrusted  the  perpetuation  of  influences 
which  shall  send  young  people  of  the  farms  cityward  or  hold 
them  countryward.  This  type  of  local  rural  leadership  is 
thus  a  great  resource  for  the  conservation  of  country  life. 

But  professional  leadership,  in  the  last  analysis,  is  but  a 
means  to  an  end,  and  this  proper  end  is  the  development  of 
lay,  or  farmer,  leadership.  The  country  teacher,  to  illustrate, 
should  become  a  leader,  but  if  this  leadership  ends  with  itself 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT        323 

it  will  be  a  detriment,  rather  than  a  benefit,  to  the  community, 
because  it  will  have  taught  the  people  dependence,  whereas 
independence  and  initiative  are  the  results  desired.  What  the 
true-visioned  teacher,  or  other  professional  leader  does,  is  to 
submerge  his  own  individuality  and  through  suggestion  and 
stimulation,  foster  the  latent  possibilities  of  the  men,  women, 
and  young  people  of  the  farm  community,  and  send  them  to 
the  front  as  guides  and  directors.  This  is  true  leadership 
and  the  only  kind  implied  here  by  the  use  of  the  term. 

Idealism.  To  be  permanent,  the  movement  for  country  life 
improvement  must  establish  a  satisfying  type  of  life  upon  the 
land ;  that  is,  a  life  economically,  socially,  and  spiritually  com- 
fortable. It  is  sometimes  assumed  that  economic  satisfaction 
alon€  will  prove  sufficient ;  but  this  hypothesis  has  been  com- 
pletely disproved  by  the  experience  of  the  Middle  West.  In 
this  section  the  bounties  of  nature  practically  insure  economic 
success,  and  yet  rural  exodus  and  unrest,  due  chiefly  to  social 
dissatisfaction,  are  as  serious  here  as  elsewhere.  To  be  satis- 
factory life  in  the  open  country  must  be  attractive.  And  to 
be  attractive  it  must  be  not  only  economically  and  socially  suc- 
cessful but  spiritualized  and  idealized. 

Every  life  has  its  prose  and  poetry.  In  this  country  life 
is  no  exception.  But  the  boy  who  stumbles  sleepily  from  a 
warm  bed  into  a  zero  atmosphere  to  feed  hogs,  and  the  girl 
who  washes  innumerable  milk  pans  every  day  in  the  week,  are 
not  so  likely  to  see  the  poetry  as  to  feel  the  deadening  prose 
of  wearing  drudgery.  This  idealization  of  country  life,  though 
largely  a  matter  of  emotional  attitude,  is,  after  all,  but  a 
process  of  education.  It  thus  becomes  the  duty  of  the 
school,  however  small  or  isolated,  to  do  its  proper  share  in 
revealing  this  side  of  farm  life  and  establishing  its  reality. 
For  without  this  spiritualization  there  can  be  no  ultimate  solu- 
tion of  the  farm  problem.  Young  people  who  do  not  idealize 
the  life  of  the  land  will  not  aid  in  establishing  a  permanent 


324   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

civilization  upon  it.  Nothing  is  more  fundamental  or  more 
vital  to  rural  w^elfare  than  an  enlarged  vision  of  the  possibili- 
ties of  country  life.  The  first  great  task  in  any  campaign  for 
rural  progress,  whether  of  local  or  national  proportions,  is  to 
establish    a    clearly-defined    and    practical    ideal    of    what    is 

possible. 

Fortunately  for  the  school,  attention  is  lately  becoming 
focused  upon  this  phase  of  its  responsibility,  and  several 
methods  of  imparting  this  idealism  are  apparent.  The  most 
immediate  and  successful  of  these  is  through  the  redirection 
of  the  old  subject-matter  of  the  curriculum;  that  is,  through 
teaching  in  terms  of  the  daily  experience  of  farm  children. 
Another  is  through  the  introduction  of  new  subject-matter 
and  new  courses,  as  agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  manual 
training.  Still  another  unimproved  opportunity  for  realizing 
this  end  through  the  agency  of  the  country  school  lies  in  the 
teaching  of  masterpieces  of  poetry,  music,  and  art,  that  deal 
with  the  idealized  side  of  life  in  the  country.  An  illustration 
or  two  will  make  this  suggestion  more  concrete. 

In  the  fields  of  art,  consider  Breton's  The  Song  of  the 
Lark.  Here  is  a  portrayal  of  life  near  the  beauties  of  the 
soil  that  should  speak  directly  to  the  boy  and  girl  of  the 
farm.  But  alas!  How  often  are  American  country  children 
like  the  French  peasant  girl  of  this  picture — blind  to  the  color 
of  the  life  about  them  and  deaf  to  its  warbled  lyrics,  until 
inspired  with  a  new  understanding  by  a  good  teacher. 

Poetry  and  music  offer  assistance  equally  helpful  and  even 
more  tangible  for  fostering  this  idealism  of  farm  life.  Pic- 
tures, poems,  and  songs,  that  portray  the  idealistic  side  of 
country  life  and  have  been  found  helpful  through  actual  test 
in  revealing  its  attractions,  are  given  in  the  appendix  of  this 
book.  (Sections  8,  9,  10.)  These  are  not  merely  nature  selec- 
tions. Nature  appreciation  is  desirable  for  all  children,  but  for 
country  children  a  special  appreciation  of  farm  life  in  all  its 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT 


325 


charms  and  vicissitudes  is  equally  desirable.    It  is  to  this  latter 
idealism  that  these  selections  contribute. 

But  the  country  school  in  ministering  to  this  highest  need 
of  agriculture  must  first  absorb  a  new  idealism  on  its  own 
part.  This  it  must  do  through  the  leadership  of  individuals 
directing  it,  for  institutions,  like  stone,  are  vitalized  only 
throu2:h  the  visions  of  men.     Thus  the  2:reat  call  is  ever  for 


The  End  of  Day 

teachers — teachers  of  the  Heart  and  Soul — who  work  for  the 
joy  of  serving  and  in  their  service  shall  redirect  the  country 
school  toward  the  aspiration  and  spirit  of  Dean  Bailey's  little 
poem: 


THE  COUNTRY    SCHOOL 

I  teach 
The  earth  and  soil 
To  them  that  toil. 
The  hill  and  fen 
To  common  men 
That  live  just  here; 


326   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

The  plants  that  grow. 
The  winds  that  blow, 
The  streams  that  run 
In  rain  and  sun 
Throughout  the  year; 

The  shop  and  mart, 
The  craft  and  art, 
The  men  today, 
The  part  they  play 
In  humble  sphere ; 

And  then  I  lead 
Through  wood  and  mead, 
Through  mold  and  sod, 
Out  unto  God — 
With  love  and  cheer, 
I  teach ! 

— L.  H.  Bailey. 

Concluding  Summary.  As  a  final  summary  of  the  discus- 
sion of  this  book,  let  it  be  briefly  repeated  that  underneath  this 
stir  of  activity  for  rural  progress  lies  a  very  fundamental 
problem  of  American  national  life.  This  problem,  stated  in 
simplest  terms,  is  that  of  holding  a  standard  people  upon  our 
farms.  But  this  cannot  be  done  unless  country  life  is  attract- 
ive and  satisfying,  an  end  to  be  attained  only  through  the 
upbuilding  of  the  local  country  community.  Country  commu- 
nity building,  however,  requires  leadership  and  cooperation, 
both  of  which  are  matters  of  education.  The  whole  issue 
therefore  reverts  to  the  question  of  proper  education,  and  in 
its  local  aspects  becomes  a  problem  for  the  country  school. 
But  the  country  school  itself  is  at  present  inefficient  and  must 
undergo  a  redirection  before  it  can  effectively  meet  the  new 
responsibility  being  laid  upon  it.  This  redirection  calls  insist- 
ently for  a  modernized  system  of  administration,  or  consolida- 
tion, but,  more  than  all  else,  it  calls  for  a  new  race  of  teachers, 


THE  COUNTRY  LIFE  MOVEMENT        327 

who,  serving  in  offices  of  local  leadership,  shall  not  only 
remake  the  school  but  vitalize  and  stimulate  the  whole  com- 
munity life.  This  in  turn  demands  the  attention  of  state 
normal  schools  and  other  educational  institutions,  a  part  of 
whose  duty  is  the  preparation  of  such  workers  for  rural 
communities. 

In  the  meantime,  while  this  new  race  of  country  teachers 
is  arising,  even  before  it  arises,  others  must  advance  from 
among  the  rank  and  file  now  serving,  who  shall  see  the  vision 
and  lead  the  way.  Having  caught  the  gleam  and  experienced 
its  transforming  power,  these  young  ]\Ierlins  also  shall  join 
the  ranks  of  the  new  race.  The  country  school  and  the  coun- 
try teacher  as  regenerating  forces  for  the  new  rural  order — 
this  is  the  meaning  of  the  vision  whose  radiance  works  this 
change,  and  whose  interpretation  has  been  the  purpose  and 
contribution  of  these  pages  toward  a  happier  and  more  satis- 
fying country  life. 


i 


APPENDIX 


OUTLINE  OF  A  COURSE  IN  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  TEACHING 

FOR  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 

Many  normal  schools,  high  schools,  and  other  educational  institutions 
are  beginning  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  preparation  of  country 
teachers.  Since  this  work  is  new,  there  is  everywhere  a  great  demand 
for  courses  for  this  purpose.  The  course  given  below  is  by  no  means 
ideal,  but  is  offered  here'  as  the  product  of  six  years'  work  in  the 
special  training  of  country  teachers,  for  the  assistance  of  those  who 
may  be  confronting  the  problem  from  less  experience. 

This  book  is  the  direct  outgrowth  of  this  course  and  should  for  this 
reason  be  found  a  useful  text  in  its  development.  When  so  used,  it 
should  not  be  taken  in  straight  sequence,  however,  but  in  the  following 
indicated  order.  If  this  order  is  adopted  the'  text  of  the  book  will  be 
found  to  cover  practically  the  entire  work  of  the  course.  The  sequence 
of  the  book  was  not  made  that  of  the  course,  because  it  was  the 
intention  to  emphasize  the  sociological  setting  of  the  country  school 
more  strongly  than  would  otherwise  have  been  possible. 

PART  ONE   OF  COURSE 

1.  Improving  the  physical  environment  of  the  school. 

Chapter  X,  pages  206  to  229;  Appendix,  Sections  3  and  4. 

2.  Socializing  the  school.    Chapter  X,  pages  229  to  238. 

3.  Vitalizing  and  enriching  the  course  of  study.    Chapter  X,  pages  239 

to  246;  Appendix,  Sections  5,  8,  9,  10,  11,  and  12. 

4.  Organization  and  management.    Appendix,  Sections  6  and  7. 

5.  Consolidation  and  teaching   the   necessity   of  a  change   of  system. 

Chapter  VIII;  and  Chapter  X,  pages  246  to  251. 

6.  Leadership  of  the  country  teacher.     Chapter  IX;   Appendix,   Sec- 

tions 13  and  14. 

329 


330   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

PART  TWO  OF  COURSE 

I  and  n.    Farm  Problem.    Chapter  I. 

HI.    Agencies  for  the  solution  of  the  farm  problem. 

1.  Socializing  institutions. 

A.  Home.     Chapter  H. 

B.  Church.    Chapter  HL 

C.  State  and  government.    Chapter  I,  page  13. 

D.  Voluntary  farm  organizations. 

a.  Grange.     Chapter  IV. 

b.  Farmers'  clubs.     Chapter  IV,  pages  85  to  90. 

c.  Farmer's'  institutes.     Chapter  V. 

d.  Business  organizations.    Chapter  XIII,  page  306. 

E.  School.     Chapter  VII   and   Chapter  IX ;    Chapter   VIII,  page 

175 ;  Chapter  XI ;  Appendix,  Sections  i  and  2 ;  Chapter  XII. 

2.  Material  means  for  the  solution  of  the  farm  problem. 

A.  The  agricultural  press.     Chapter  V. 

B.  Roads.     Chapter  VI. 

IV.     The  Country  Life  Movement.     Chapter  XIII  and  Chapter  IX. 

THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  AND  THE  RURAL  COMMUNITY 

A  Course  in  the  Problems  and  Management  of  Country  Schools  and 
the  Study  of  Rural  Social  Agencies.  Offered  in  the  Country  School 
Department  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University  at  Normal,  Illinois. 

Introduction.  The  present  rural  situation  in  Illinois  and  elsewhere. 
General  discussion  of  country  school  and  community  conditions  based 
on  the  first-hand  information  and  experience  of  the  class.  The  countr}* 
teacher  as  an  innovator  of  rural  progress. 

Part  I.     The  Country  Teacher's  Problem  and  Its  Attack 

The  problem  stated.     Its  attack  through : 

I.     Improving  the  physical  environment  of  the  school. 

A.     The    building.      Characteristic     defects;     their     correction     and 
improvement. 

a.  Ventilation  and  heating.     Necessity  of;  requirements  of  a  good 

ventilating  system;  stoves  as  ventilators.  Relief  measures 
for  the  ventilation  of  country  schools:  jacketed  stoves; 
mechanical  systems ;  furnace  ventilation. 

b.  Lighting.      Eye-strain    and    neglect    among    country    children ; 

its  symptoms.  Teacher's  responsibility  for  care  of  the  eyes. 
General  principles  of  school  room  lighting.  Defects  in  the 
lighting  of  country  schools;  their  correction. 


APPENDIX  331 

c.  Interior  finish  and  decoration.    Importance  of,  and  effect  upon 

children.  Typical  conditions  of  neglect  and  their  cause. 
Choice  of  color  schemes  for  country  schools.  Best  wall 
finishes ;  woodwork ;  wall  decoration,  pictures,  and  bulletin 
boards. 

d.  Seating  and  furnishing.     Country  school  seats ;   defects ;   cor- 

rectives. Musical  instruments,  library  cases,  work  tables, 
work  benches,  cupboards,  and  other  needed  furniture. 

e.  Plumbing,  sanitation,  and  care.     The  mechanism  and  cost  of 

plumbing  for  rural  schools.  Indoor  toilets ;  their  advan- 
tages. Sanitation  of  the  country  school  room;  control  of 
dust.    Janitor  work  of  the  country  school. 

f.  General    rural    school    architecture.      A    study    of    the    plans, 

building    materials,     and     cost    of    model    country     school 

buildings, 

B.     Country   school   grounds.     Suggestive   landscape   plans ;   general 

principles   of   planting;    what   to    plant   and    how.      Care    and 

construction  of  well,   walks,  and  fences.     Outbuildings ;  their 

care,  sanitation,  and  moral  influence.     Summer  houses,  arbors, 

and  arches. 

2.    Socialising  the  country  school  and  making  it  a  community  center. 

A.  A  brief  analysis  of  existing  social  conditions  in  the  average  rural 

community,  with  a  study  of  their  causes. 

B.  Ways  and  methods  of  making  the  country  school  a  community 

center  and  of  developing  a  cooperative  social  spirit  in  the  rural 
community  through  its  agency. 

a.  Through   the   teacher's   personal   influence   in   the   community. 

Visiting  among  patrons ;  conversation  and  literature  intro- 
duced by  the  teacher. 

b.  By  developing  the  social  activities  of  the  children.     Boys*  and 

girls'  clubs ;  their  values ;  organization ;  and  work.  Illus- 
trative examples  studied. 

c.  By  making  the   school  house   a   meeting  place   for   the   com- 

munity. Need  of  recreation  among  farmers.  School  house 
meetings :  for  entertainment ;  for  earning  money ;  and  for 
community  instruction  and  inspiration.  The  development 
and  management  of  a  Country  Life  Club  or  other  commu- 
nity organization  centering  about  the  school. 

d.  By  developing  a  close  cooperation  between  the  home  and  the 

school.  Parents'  associations;  their  need;  organization  and 
management.    Topics  for  discussion ;  available  helps. 


332 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE-'COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


e.  By  utilizing  all  materials  and  agencies  at  hand  for  awakening 
an  active  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the  school  and  com- 
munity. The  use  of  the  local  press.  Exhibits ;  of  children's 
work,  art  exhibits,  industrial  and  agricultural  exhibits.  Edu- 
cational excursions ;  local  excursions ;  railway  excursions. 

3.  Vitalmng  and  enriching  the  course  of  study. 

A.  The  social  efficiency  aim  of  education.     Factors  determining  the 

educative  process. 

B.  The  consideration  of  a  country  school  course  of  study  dictated 

by  the  social-efficiency  aim  of   education   and  conditioned  by 
the  experience  of  country  children. 

a.  Study  values.     The  relative  value  of  the  different  subjects  in 

the  country  school  curriculum.  Formal  and  content  studies. 
School  subjects  classified  as  the  outgrowth  of  human  in- 
stincts. Three- fold  division  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
curriculum. 

b.  The   re-organization   of   the   country   school   curriculum.     The 

revision  and  redirection  of  old  subjects;  the  introduction 
and  selection  of  material  for  the  new  subjects. 

Humanistic  studies.^  Literature,  language,  reading,  gram- 
mar, history,  music,  and  art  in  the  country  school;  their 
relation  to  rural  interests. 

Scientific  studies.  Arithmetic,  geography,  nature  study, 
physiology  and  agriculture.  Agriculture  as  the  basis  of  the 
reorganized  rural  curriculum.  Principles  underlying  the 
organization  and  introduction  of  agricultural  courses  for 
country  schools.  Sources  of  information  and  assistance  for 
the  teacher. 

Industrial  art.  Definition,  content,  and  right  to  an  exist- 
ence in  the  country  school  curriculum.  Manual  training  and 
household  science  for  country  schools.  The  significance  of 
the  industrial  organization  of  the  elementary  school  cur- 
riculum; its  effect  upon  old  subject-matter. 

c.  Elementary  rural  sociology  for  country  children.     The  need  of 

such  a  course;  its  organization,  introduction,  and  teaching; 
available  helps. 

4.  Better  organisation  and  management. 

A.     Organization  and  management  of  the  one-teacher  country  school, 
a.     The    daily    program ;    principles    underlying    its    arrangement ; 
study  of  suggestive  model  programs. 


APPENDIX  333 

b.  Seat-work,  principles  underlying  its  selection  and  teaching. 

c.  Spirit  and  discipline.     The  school  as  a   social  group.     Proper 

and  improper  punishment.  Spirit  desired;  how  to  secure  it. 
Playground  discipline.  Indoor  and  outdoor  games ;  play  days. 

d.  The  country  school  system  of  Illinois.     Ofificers  involved;  their 

duties  and  powers.  School  revenue;  legal  rate;  inadequacy 
of  average  levy  in  country  districts;  rural  and  urban  school 
funds  compared;  state  aid  for  poor  districts. 

5,  Consolidation  and  teaching  the  necessity  of  a  change  of  system. 

The  ungraded  versus  the  graded,  or  consolidated,  system  for 
country  schools. 

a.  The  present  small  district  system.     Its  disadvantages;  its  his- 

tory and  development;  its  lack  of  adjustment  to  present 
social  and  economic  conditions. 

b.  The    larger    district    or    consolidated    system.      Definition    and 

types  of  consolidation ;  ideal  possibilities  of  the  system. 
History  and  status  of  the  consolidation  movement.  Advan- 
tages of  consolidation;  difficulties  involved;  some  phases  of 
the  question  of  transportation  ;  cost  of  consolidated  schools ; 
the  consolidated  school  compared  with  other  types  of  rural 
high  schools ;  need  of  a  country  system  of  districting  for 
consolidation;  the  consolidated  school  as  a  community  center. 

c.  Consolidation    campaigns.      Method    of    procedure;    helps    and 

literature  available ;  a  study  of  the  school  law  and  legal 
steps  necessary  to  consolidate  in  Illinois. 

6.  The  local  leadership  of  the  country  teacher. 

Proper  interpretation  of  the  doctrine  of  country  teacher 
leadership;  true  leadership  explained;  scarcity  of  rural  leaders 
and  its  effect;  opportunity  and  advantages  of  the  country 
teacher  for  community  leadership ;  requirements  on  the  part 
of  country  teachers  for  leadership.  The  necessity  of  under- 
standing country  life  conditions  and  of  cooperating  with 
various  rural  social  agencies. 

Part  II.     Country  Life  and  the  Rural  Community 

I.  THE  A]MERICAN   FARM    PROBLEM. 

The  problem   stated;   its   significance;   cause;   rural  isolation   and 
its  effect. 

II.  SOLUTION    OF  THE  FARM    PROBLEM. 

The    necessity    of    making    country    life    permanently    satisfying; 


334 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


country  community  building  as  a  means  to  this  end ;  possibilities  of 
the  ideal  country  community;  cooperation  the  keynote  in  community 
building ;  agencies  of  community  building ;  chief  functions  of  agencies 
defined ;   necessity   for   the   federation   of   community   forces. 

UL      AGENCIES   FOR  THE   SOLUTION    OF  THE   FARM    PROBLEM. 

I.     Socialising  institutions. 

A.  The  Home. 

The  farm  home  as  an  agency  for  rural  progress.  Present 
conditions  in  farm  homes.  The  improvement  of  farm  home 
life.     The  home  as  a  center  of  all  interests. 

B.  The  Country  Church. 

The  church  as  an  agency  for  rural  progress.  The  present  status 
of  country  churches.  Recent  awakening ;  movements  for  prog- 
ress.   Relation  of  the  country  teacher  to  the  church  problem. 

C.  The  State  and  Government. 

Function.  Needed  legislation ;  cause  for  legislative  neglect  of 
agricultural  interests ;  remedy.  Duties  of  farmers  as  legis- 
lators, voters,  and  citizens. 

D.  The  Voluntary  Farm  Organizations. 

a.  The  Grange.  Its  purpose,  history,  organization,  and  influence. 
Detailed  study  of  a  typical  subordinate  grange.  Grange  mem- 
bership for  country  teachers.  The  organization  of  local 
granges  through  the  school. 

b.  Farmers'  clubs.  Their  purpose,  benefit,  and  management. 
The  study  of  typical  local  clubs.  The  relative  efficiency  of 
farmers'  clubs  and  subordinate  granges.  Organizing  a  farmers' 
club  through  the  school. 

c.  Farmers'  institutes.  The  history,  organization,  and  influence 
of  farmers'  institutes  in  the  United  States.  The  present  status 
of  farmers'  institutes.  Progress  movements ;  study  of  sug- 
gestive types  of  work.  Cooperation  between  the  country  school 
and  the  farmers'  institute. 

d.  Business  organizations.  Local  organizations  for  buying  and 
selling.  Elevator  and  telephone  companies,  creameries,  etc. 
The  middle-man  system;  its  dangers;  results  and  checks. 

E.  The  Country  School. 

a.  The  school  as  an  agency  in  the  solution  of  the  farm  prob- 
lem. Complete  function  of  the  country  school  defined ;  the 
country  school  as  a  community  center  and  initiator  of  rural 
progress ;  its  advantages  to  this  end. 


APPENDIX  33^ 

b.     Needs  of  the  country  school. 

1.  Consolidation  re-stated  as  the  chief  fundamental  need. 

2.  Increased  financial  support  and  cooperation  on  the  part  of 
patrons.  Some  statistics  of  rural  school  expenditure;  value 
received;  the  economic  waste  of  the  ungraded  system, 

3.  Trained  teachers.  Class  of  teachers  available  for  rural 
service;  cause.  The  present  training  of  country  teachers; 
in  state  normal  schools;  in  county  normal  schools;  in 
special-aided  high  schools.  Future  developments  and  provi- 
sions for  the  training  of  country  teachers.  Country  school 
conferences  and  other  gatherings  for  the  inspiration  and 
help  of  country  teachers. 

4.  Better  supervision.  Difficulties  of  rural  supervision; 
system  of  rural  supervision  employed  in  the  U.  S. ;  in- 
creasing the  efficiency  of  the  county  superintendency ;  the 
necessity  for  its  removal  from  political  influence;  the 
opportunity  and  responsibility  of  county  superintendents. 
The  duty  of  teachers  to  county  superintendents. 

5.  Improved  legislation.  The  need  of  better  legislation  for 
country  schools  and  of  enforcing  what  now  exists.  The 
study  of  some  special,  recent,  legal  provisions  for  country 
school  betterment. 

Material  instruments  and  means  for  the  solution  of  the  farm 
problem. 

A.  For  the  communication  of  thought : 

a.  Libraries ;  school  and  grange  libraries. 

b.  Telephones ;  their  influence  upon  farm  life. 

c.  Rural  delivery  of  mail;  its  effect  upon  country  living. 

d.  The  agricultural  press;  its  influence;  types  of  rural  life 
literature ;  a  list  of  books,  bulletins,  and  periodicals  for  farm- 
home  and  country-school  libraries. 

B.  For  personal  communication  and  transportation : 

a.  Roads.  The  road  problem.  Our  present  road  system ;  its 
organization  and  defects.  Some  road  progress  movements  and 
reforms.    The  country  school  and  the  road  problem. 

b.  Rural  electric  lines ;  their  increase  and  effect  upon  country 
life ;  their  use  for  the  transportation  of  rural  school  children. 

c.  Automobiles,  and  the  revolution  they  are  destined  to  bring 
about  in  rural  life ;  use  for  the  transportation  of  children  to 
consolidated  schools ;  bearing  upon  the  road  problem, 


336   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

IV.      THE   COUNTRY  LIFE    MOVEMENT. 

1.  Various  phases  and  recent  developments  of  the  movement,  as  illus- 

trated by  current  meetings  and  organizations. 

2.  The  Country   Life   Commission  and  its   influence.     General   study 

and  summary  of  its  report. 

3.  Needs  of  the  Country  Life  Movement. 

A.  Concreteness. 

Local  country  community  building. 

Meaning;  necessity  of;  examples;  principles  underlying. 

B.  The  federation  of  rural  social  forces. 

Meaning,  history,  and  advantages  of  the  federative  idea. 
Developments  of  rural  federation. 

C.  Leadership. 

Kinds  of  rural  leadership ;  need  of  rural  leaders,  both  local  and 
large;  lay  and  professional  rural  leadership,  the  office  of  each. 
The  institutional  leadership  of  the  country  school  in  the  local 
rural  community. 

D.  Idealism. 

Need  for  a  new  rural  idealism ;  the  school's  part  in  establishing  a 
higher  idealism  in  country  life ;  how  accomplished. 


II 

OUTLINE  OF  A  COURSE  IN  RURAL  SOCIOLOGY  FOR 

COUNTRY  TEACHERS 

Offered  in  the  Country  School  Department  of  the  Illinois  State 
Normal  University  at  Normal,  Illinois 

The  following  course  attempts  only  to  give  immature  country 
teachers  a  somewhat  better  understanding  of  country  life,  not  to 
cover  the  field  of  rural  sociology  in  any  scientific  way.  It  is  offered 
here  only  as  a  suggestion  for  the  development  of  similar  better  courses. 
References  for  assignments  may  be  selected  from  the  bibliography  of 
this  book.  A  special  term  paper  upon  any  topic  related  to  rural  social 
life  is  required  of  each  student.  Part  of  this  course  closely  parallels 
Part  II  of  the  preceding  course,  and  is  therefore  not  re-stated  in  detail. 

Readers  familiar  with  the  literature  of  country  life  will  observe  my 
obligation  to  President  K.  L.  Butterfield's  course  in  his  Chapters  in 
Rural  Progress. 


APPENDIX  337 

I.     PRESENT  RURAL   SOCIAL   CONDITIONS 

A   detailed  study  of  the   Report   of  the  Country  Life   Commission. 
Covering  also  the  following  topics : 
I.     Social  characteristics  of  farm  life. 

A.  Farm  life  contrasted  with  city  life  in  : 

Congestion  versus  isolation;  transportation  and  communication; 
specialization  in  vocation ;  organization  and  leadership ;  social 
consciousness ;  adaptability ;  satisfaction  and  attractiveness, 

B.  Rural  isolation  and  its  effects. 

a.  Upon  community  life:  conservatism;  radicalism;  provincialism; 

neighborhood  strife;  lack  of  organization  and  cooperation; 
scarcity  of  leaders. 

b.  Upon  family  life :  unity,  interdependence,  and  self-sufficiency  of 

the  farm   family. 

c.  Upon    individual   life :    the    independence    and    individuality   of 

farmers  ;  habits  ;  temperamental  tendencies  ;  morals ;  ideals. 

C.  The  unrest  and  movement  of  the  farm  population. 

a.  The  movement  westward — history,  causes,  effects. 

b.  The   movement    cityward — general    aspects,    causes ;    industrial 

changes ;  true  meaning  of  rural  depletion ;  the  necessity  of  a 
balance  of  population. 

c.  Present-day  city  migration — industrial,  social,  and  psychological 

causes. 

d.  Results  of  the  migration  of  rural  population.    Effect  upon  coun- 

try ;  effect  upon  cities ;  general  industrial  and  social  results, 
both  good  and  bad. 

2.     Current  agricultural  problems. 

A.  Commensurate  financial  returns  upon  capital  invested. 

The  high  price  of  land ;  causes  and  resulting  demands.  Farm  in- 
comes as  compared  with  the  incomes  of  other  vocations.  Neces- 
sity and  methods  of  maintaining  commensurate  farm  in- 
comes; various  determinant  factors. 

B.  Economic  measures  for  maximum  crop  production. 

The  conservation  of  soil  fertility;  the  use  of  machinery;  seed  selec- 
tion ;  cooperative  labor ;  specialization  in  farming,  necessity  and 
results. 

C.  Tenant  farming. 

Causes;  results,  national  and  local;  large  versus  small  farms. 

D.  Agricultural  labor. 

Scarcity  of  house  and  field  labor.     Causes— social,  economic,  and 


338   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

industrial.  Remedies :  use  of  machinery ;  cooperative  labor 
plants ;  increased  attractiveness  of  farm  life  for  laborers  and  all 
others.  Immigration  and  its  effect  upon  the  rural  labor  problem 
and  farm  life  in  general. 

E.  Agricultural  business   cooperation. 

Need ;  ideals  governing ;  suggestive  European  developments  in  Ire- 
land and  in  Denmark ;  special  difficulties  of  cooperation  among 
American  farmers ;  instances  of  success. 

F.  Exploitation  of  agriculture. 

Speculative  holding  of  lands;  monopolistic  control  of  streams; 
wastage  of  forests;  restraint  of  trade;  soil  depletion. 

G.  Agricultural  legislation. 

Some  needed  measures ;  need  for  agricultural  statesmen ;  farmers 
as  citizens,  voters,  and  legislators. 
H.     Agricultural    education. 

a.  History  of  the  movement ;  development  of  Land  Grant  Colleges 

of  Agriculture  and  of  experiment  stations. 

b.  Kinds:  in  elementary  schools,  secondary  schools,  and  colleges; 

agricultural  extension  for  adult  farmers ;   research  and   dis- 
semination work  in  agriculture. 

c.  Needs   of  agricultural   education :   extension ;    social   emphasis ; 

central  national  bureau. 
I.     Rural  morality. 

Fact   versus    impression    regarding   rural    morality;    causes    of 
immorality;  correctives. 
J.     Health. 

Special  rural  diseases ;  facts  concerning  and  extent.     Sanitary  con- 
ditions and  neglect  in  country  communities;   measures   for   im- 
provement. 
K.     Rural  recreation. 

Need  of  recreation  in  the  country.  Recreation  for  the  young; 
recreation  for  adults.  Rural  aspects  and  developments  of  the 
recent  play  movement. 

II.      THE    FUNDAMENTAL    FARM    PROBLEM. 

1.  The  problem  stated. 

2.  Its    significance. 

3.  Cause;  isolation  and  its  effects  upon  country  life  (see  above). 

4.  Phases  of  the  problem:  (a)  the  scientific,  or  natural  resource,  aspect; 

(b)  the  technical,  or  productive,  aspect;  (c)  the  business,  or  ad- 
ministrative, aspect;  (d)  the  economic,  or  industrial,  aspect;  (e) 
the  social,  or  community,  aspect. 


APPENDIX  339 

III.      SOLUTION    OF  THE   FARM    PROBLEM. 

1.  Cooperation  the  keynote  in  its  solution.     Fundamental  sociological 

correctives  involved  in  cooperation:  (a)  Education,  (b)  Social- 
isation,    (c)   Organisation,     (d)  Idealisation. 

2.  Community  building  as  a  factor  in  the  solution  of  the  farm  problem. 

(a)  The  ideal  country  community,  (b)  Study  of  various  local 
communities  approximating  this  ideal,  (c)  Principles  of  local 
community   building. 

IV.      AGENCIES   OF  RURAL    SOCIALIZATION    AND   COMMUNITY  BUILDING. 

A  Study  of  the  Possibilities  and  Realizations  of  Country-Life 
Institutions  and  Organizations. 
I.     Institutions. 

A.  The  farm  home  and  family. 

The  home  as  a  socializing  agency ;  its  functions  defined ;  present 
conditions  in  farm  homes ;  improvement ;  the  farm  home  as  a 
center  of  interests ;  the  farm  family  as  a  social  unit. 

B.  Government. 

Function ;  needs,  state  and  national ;  the  larger  use  of  local  govern- 
ment in  rural  districts. 

C.  The  country  church. 

As  a  socialization  agency;  function  stated;  present  status;  pro- 
gressive developments ;  relation  of  the  church  problem  to  country 
school  welfare. 

D.  The  farmers'  organization ;  its  function. 

a.  The   Grange :   its   origin,   history,   organization,   work,   and   in- 

fluence ;  cooperation  with  country  school. 

b.  Farmers'  clubs :  method  of  organization,  influence  and  coopera- 

tion with  school. 

c.  Farmers'   institutes :   origin,   history  and  organization ;   present 

status  and  progress ;  cooperation  with  school. 

d.  Farmers'  economic  organizations  :  The  Farmers'  Union,  Ameri- 

can Society  of  Equity,  and  others ;  their  social  influence. 

E.  The  school. 

a.  The  state  college  of  agriculture.     Its  service  to  the  local  rural 

community;  its  development  of  leaders. 

b.  The  country  school.     Definition  of  its   place  and   function   in 

country  life;  (See  Chapter  VII  this  book).  Fundamental 
needs :  consolidation  ;  increased  revenue ;  trained  teachers ; 
better  supervision;  improved  legislation.  (Develop  fully  as 
outlined  in  the  preceding  coirrse,  page  335-) 


340 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


2.    Material  instruments  and  means  of  rural  socialization. 

A.  The  rural  press  ;  influence ;  service ;  need  of  social  emphasis. 

B.  Rural    libraries ;    permanent    and    traveling    libraries ;    the    rural 

library  as  a  community  center. 

C.  Means  of  communication. 

a.  Roads :  the  road  problem  as  a  national  issue ;   road  improve- 
ment; the  responsibility  of  the  country  school  for  road  progress. 

b.  Rural  electric  lines  and  automobiles ;  their  present  and  future 
influence. 

c.  Telephones  and  mail  delivery. 

v.      THE  FEDERATION  OF  RURAL  AGENCIES   AND   FORCES. 

Federation  defined ;  its  necessity ;  history  of  the  movement ;  special 
study  of  the  Illinois  Federation  for  Country  Life  Progress ;  need  of  a 
national  Bureau  of  Country  Life,  and  of  state  and  national  campaigns 
for  rural  progress. 

VI.      THE  COUNTRY  LIFE   MOVEMENT. 

Its  character ;  recent  developments ;  needs — concreteness,  federation, 
leadership,  idealism. 

Ill 

A  COUNTRY  TEACHER'S  SCHOOLHOUSE  PLAN 

Schoolhouses  are  usually  planned  by  architects,  directors,  and 
other  people  who  never  live  in  them.  This  perhaps  accounts  for 
their  usual  inconvenience.  Of  all  people,  country  teachers  should 
best  appreciate  the  demands  of  a  good  country  school  building. 
Yet  they  are  seldom  heard  from  upon  this  subject.  The  following 
plan,  designed  by  the  author,  therefore  claims  at  least  the  dis- 
tinction of  coming  from  an  actual  country  teacher  and  of  being  the 
outgrowth  of  direct  experience. 

The  General  Plan.  The  main  part  of  this  building  is  32'  x  40'. 
The  front  projection  is  18'  x  20'.  Room  dimensions  are  indicated 
on  the  drawings.  All  ceilings  above  are  12  feet  high.  The  base- 
ment extends  4  feet  below  the  ground,  Basement  ceilings  are  8 
feet  high.  Either  wood  or  cement-plaster  on  expanded  metal  lath 
may  be  used  in  construction,  but  the  latter  is  recommended  because 
warmer  and  more  attractive.  The  exterior,  as  planned,  gives  a 
bungalow  effect,  having  broad  low  eaves.  The  walls  of  the  exterior 
if  built  of  cement-plaster  may  be  gray  with  brown  trimmings  or 
green    with    darker    green    trimmings.      The    shingles    should    be 


c  FtQf>j  r    eL,£vATtON. 


Front  Elevation 


Rear  Elevation 


342 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


stained  a  dark  green  and  the  chimney  built  of  native  stone  where- 
ever  possible,  li  the  building  is  constructed  of  lumber,  tan  and 
brown  eflfects  or  a  plain  white  exterior  may  be  chosen.  H  the 
large  basement  is  not  desired,  a  small  basement  may  be  con- 
structed under  the  hall.  When  this  is  done  a  playroom  of  fair 
qualifications  may  be  made  in  the  attic  of  the  building. 

Interior  Finish  and  Furnishings.  The  wall  finish  as  planned 
is  patent  plaster  trowelled  smooth  and  tinted  or  painted. 
The  best  color  scheme  is  soft  tan  walls  and  cream  ceiling,  or  gray 


ncnr  jiO£  CtCiMTtOit 


Right  Side  Elevation 


green  walls  and  pale  yellow  ceiling.  The  woodwork  should  be 
finished  natural,  and  dressed  with  a  soft  dull  stain  that  will  endure 
water.  The  floor  may  be  matched  hard  pine  oiled,  or  soft  pine 
painted.  Schoolroom  and  workroom  should  be  finished  alike  and 
connected  by  large  rolling  doors  so  that  they  may  be  thrown 
together  for  community  meetings.  Glass-topped  swinging  doors 
will  permit  the  teacher  to  view  both  rooms  at  once.  Slate  black- 
boards four  feet  wide  and  two  feet  from  the  floor  extend  across 
the  front  and  right  walls  of  the  schoolroom  and  along  the  front 


I 


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SCHOOL     ROOM 


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First  Floor  Plan 


344 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


and  left  walls  of  the  workroom.  A  ventilating-  flue  and  a  fireplace 
with  a  mantel  of  slight  projection  are  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  rear  wall  of  the  schoolroom,  and  a  window  seat  eighteen 
inches  wide,  with  a  hinged  section  forming  the  cover  of  a  large 
store-box,  extends  around  the  window  alcove.  A  portable  bulletin 
board  made  of  burlap  over  a  fitted  frame  hangs  on  the  rear  wall 
of  the  schoolroom. 

A  300  gallon  pressure  tank  stored  in  the  basement  and  filled 
by  means  of  a  hand  pump  makes  possible  the  indoor  toilets  and 
distribution  of  water  throughout  the  building.  Such  a  system  can 
be  purchased  from  the  Kewanee  Water  Supply  Company  of 
Kewanee,  Illinois,  or  from  the  Leader  Iron  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany of  Decatur,  Illinois,  for  about  $250  or  $300.  A  hot-air 
furnace  heating  all  parts  of  the  building  adequately  can  be 
installed  for  from  $100  to  $175.  The  scheme  of  ventilation  as 
here  planned  provides  for  the  removal  of  foul  air  and  furnishes 
only  fresh  heated  air  directly  from  outside. 

Among  the  furnishings  suggested  for  this  building  are  Napier 
matting  rugs.  These  save  nerve-wear  in  the  schoolroom  and 
are  easily  cleaned.  Chairs  will  be  found  more  convenient  as  reci- 
tation seats  than  the  common  long  benches.  In  the  workroom  a 
sink,  kitchen  equipment,  and  primary  and  laboratory  tables,  should 
be  placed.  Each  of  these  has  its  place  in  the  administration  of 
the  school.  The  equipment  for  the  play-room  may  be  home-made 
and  put  in  by  the  children.  Among  the  furnishings  for  the  hall 
should  be  a  sanitary  drinking  fountain,  a  covered  box  for  over- 
shoes, and  a  telephone,  which  with  a  mailbox  at  the  gate  will 
facilitate  outside  communication.  Linoleum  will  make  an  excellent 
and  attractive  floor  covering  for  the  hall. 

SPECIAL    POINTS    OF   RECOMMENDATION 

1.  Most  country  schools  are  too  small.  This  one  is  sufficiently 
large  for  work  and  comfort. 

2.  It  possesses  a  workroom,  conveniently  located  on  the  first 
floor,  for  agricultural  study,  laboratory  and  kindergarten  work, 
and  domestic  science.  This  one  feature  alone  is  enough  to  revo- 
lutionize country  teaching. 

3.  It  affords  cloak  rooms  for  both  boys  and  girls,  and  has 
clean,  sanitary,  indoor  toilets  on  the  first  -floor,  surrounded  by  dead 
air  chambers.     No  one  thing  will  do  as  much  for  the  morals  of 


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346   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

country  children  as  clean,  indoor  toilets.  The  fact  that  these  are 
on  the  first  floor,  in  a  thoroughly  respectable,  recognized  location, 
further  adds  to  their  moral  influence. 

4.  Sliding  doors  between  the  schoolroom  and  workroom  make 
it  possible  to  convert  the  whole  main  part  of  the  building  into 
one  large  room  for  community  meetings.  The  permanent  seat  in 
the  bay  window  also  adds  to  the  seating  capacity.  These  are 
important  features  in  the  country  school  which  is  used  as  a  social 
center  for  the  neighborhood. 

5.  The  furnace,  tank,  fuel,  stores,  janitor  supplies,  and  the 
shop,  the  play-room,  and  all  other  sources  of  dust  or  noise  are 
relegated  to  the  basement.  This  saves  janitor  work  and  nervous 
strain  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and  children. 

6.  A  fair-sized  play-room  is  provided  in  this  plan.  This  room 
will  prove  a  blessing,  especially  in  bad  weather. 

7.  Running  water  is  supplied  throughout  the  building  at 
nominal  expense.     The  boys  can  do  the  pumping. 

8.  Adequate  ventilation  and  heating  and  proper  lighting  are 
all  insured. 

9.  Ample  storing  space  is  planned,  a  convenience  not  one 
country  school  in  hundreds  provides. 

10.  The  interior  of  the  building  is  well  finished  and  decorated. 
The  exterior,  also,  is  artistic  and  pleasing — an  unusual  point  in 
country  school  architecture. 

11.  A  telephone  and  mailbox  constitute  a  regular  feature  of 
this  plan. 

12.  The  rooms  are  adequately  furnished,  but  only  the  things 
necessary  to  good  teaching  are  included. 

IV 

FURNISHINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  FOR  COUNTRY  SCHOOLS 

Country  teachers  carry  far  more  weight  in  making  requests  for 
furniture  and  supplies  when  they  can  tell  exactly  where  to  get 
what  they  want  and  how  much  it  costs.  The  following  list  is 
therefore  inserted.  All  recommendations  made  here  are  the  result 
of  several  years  experience  in  the  country  schoolroom,  and  are 
entirely  a  matter  of  personal  opinion  and  responsibility,  being 
selected  solely  upon  their  adaptability  to  country  school  use. 
Catalogs  may  be  had  upon  request  from  all  companies  named. 


APPENDIX 


347 


General  School  Equipment  Directory.  Any  copy  of  the  Amer- 
ican School  Board  Journal,  published  at  129  Michigan  Street, 
Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  affords  an  excellent  directory  for  school 
supplies,  equipment,  and  text-books.  These  lists  are  always  up-to- 
date  and  thoroughly  reliable.  When  putting  in  new  furnishings, 
country  teachers  will  do  well  to  send  for  a  number  of  this  journal 
and  use  its  advertisements  for  reference.     Single  copies,  20  cents. 

Heating  Plants.  The  Smith  Ventilating  Room  Heater.  Prices 
from  $90  to  $125.  Manufactured  by  the  Manuel-Smith  Heating 
Company,  821  Washington  Avenue,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  and 
Rock  Island,  Illinois.  Also  the  Waterbury  Ventilating  Company, 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota;  Buffalo,  New  York;  or  Springfield, 
Illinois. 

Furnaces.  Peck-Hammond  Company,  Cincinnati;  Lewis  & 
Kitchen,  Chicago;  Columbus  Heating  and  Ventilating  Company, 
Columbus,  Ohio. 

Blackboards.  Slate  is  best;  but  among  the  best  cheaper  substi- 
tutes are  Carbonall  blackboard,  manufactured  by  the  Good  Prod- 
ucts Company,  1709-11  West  Austin  Avenue,  Chicago,  at  12  cents 
per  square  foot,  and  Hylo-Plate,  sold  at  9  cents  per  square  foot 
by  the  Beckley-Cardy  Company,  312  West  Randolph  Street, 
Chicago. 

Crayon.  Nothing  but  dustless  makes  furnished  by  all  school 
supply  houses  should  be  used.  See  list  below,  or  catalog  of  the 
American  Crayon  Company,  1230  Hayes  Avenue,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Erasers.  Use  noiseless,  all-felt  erasers.  The  Dann  erasers  from 
E.  W.  A.  Rowles,  233-35  Market  Street,  Chicago,  at  95  cents  per 
dozen,  and  the  new  Atlas  noiseless  erasers,  sold  by  the  Beckley-Cardy 
Company  at  $1.25  per  dozen,  are  good. 

Window  Shades.  Johnson's  Window  Shade  Adjusters,  manu- 
factured by  R.  R.  Johnson,  161  Randolph  Street,  Chicago,  at  60 
cents  each,  permit  the  regulation  of  light  in  country  schools. 

Wall  Finish.  For  new  walls,  water  color,  Dekarato,  etc.,  are 
best.  These  can  be  applied  over  rough  plaster.  For  old  walls, 
use  plain  ingrain  paper.     Inquire  of  local  dealers. 

Floor  Finish.  New  floors  should  be  oiled.  For  old  floors, 
common  floor  paint  is  good.  Inquire  of  local  dealers.  A  new 
preparation,  Standard  Floor  Dressing,  is  on  the  market.  Address 
the  Standard  Oil  Company,  Chicago,  for  sample  and  price. 

Seats.  Adjustable  desks  only  should  be  used.  Good  ones  can 
be    secured    from    the    American    Seating    Company,    215    Wabash 


348   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Avenue,   Chicago.     Write  for  catalog.     Average  price,  $3.50  each. 

Musical  Instruments.  Lyon  &  Healy,  Chicago;  or  the  Baldwin 
Company,  Chicago. 

Kindergarten  Tables,  Sand  Tables,  and  Primary  Chairs.  Kinder- 
garten tables  can  be  made,  or  purchased  for  from  $4  to  $6.  Sand 
tables  are  much  cheaper  and  more  serviceable  when  home-made. 
Strong  kindergarten  chairs  14  inches  high  and  useful  as  recitation 
seats  for  the  whole  school  may  be  bought  at  about  $7  per  dozen. 
Investigate  through  catalogs  of  school  supply  houses  named 
below. 

Rugs.  Napier  matting  is  recommended  for  schoolrooms  and 
linoleum  for  halls.     Inquire  of  local  dealers. 

Pictures.     See  this  appendix.  Section  5. 

Library  Cases.  These  can  be  made  by  the  children,  or  sectional 
book  cases  of  the  Globe-Wernicke  or  Gunn  make  may  be  pur- 
chased from  school  supply  companies  and  from  local  dealers. 

Maps  and  Globes.  The  Rand-McNally  Company  of  Chicago  is 
now  generally  acknowledged  the  best  of  map  makers.  The  Scar- 
borough Company  of  Indianapolis  is  also  good.  Send  for  special 
literature. 

Clocks.  Good  eight-day  clocks  can  be  purchased  for  from  $3 
to  $5.  Ever}'-  school  should  have  one.  See  catalogs  of  school 
supply  houses  listed  below.  The  Big-Ben  alarm  clock  manufac- 
tured by  the  Big-Ben  Company  at  La  Salle,  Illinois,  and  sold  for 
$2.50,  keeps  reliable  time  also. 

Water  Tank  and  Sink.  Every  school  should  possess  these  for 
the  sake  of  health  and  sanitation.  Inquire  of  local  hardware 
dealers. 

Aquaria.  An  aquarium  makes  many  things  possible  in  nature 
study.  Write  for  information  and  prices  to  the  A.  Flanagan 
Company,  Chicago,  and  other  dealers. 

Scouring  Powder.  For  windows,  Bon  Ami;  for  floors  and 
woodwork,  Gold  Dust  or  Dutch  Cleanser.     Inquire  of  local  grocers. 

Disinfectants.  For  the  schoolroom,  Piatt's  chlorides;  for  out- 
buildings, ashes,  fresh  earth,  lime,  or  lump  copperas.  Inquire  of 
local  druggists  for  copperas. 

Wringer  Mops.  Inquire  of  local  dealers  or  address  the  White 
Mop  Wringer  Company,  Fultonville,  New  York.  Wringer  number 
two  made  by  this  company  at  $1.50  gives  excellent  service. 

Lamps.  Alcohol  lamps  are  safe  and  well  adapted  to  country 
school    needs.     Address    the    Alcohol    Lamp    &    Stove    Company, 


APPENDIX  349 

Davenport,  Iowa.  Prices,  $5  to  $9.  Good  kerosene  lamps  are  now 
made  with  mantle  burners  which  supply  an  abundant  white  light 
much  like  real  gas.  Among  these  are  the  Harp  Lamp  put  out  by 
the  Rome  Heating  &  Lighting  Company,  Rome,  New  York,  price 
$6;  and  the  Angle  Lamp  from  the  Angle  Manufacturing  Company, 
159  West  Twenty-fourth  Street,   New  York,  price  from  $1.80  up. 

Cooking  Stoves.  Alcohol  stoves  are  more  desirable  than  oil 
fixtures.  Address  the  Alcohol  Lamp  &  Stove  Company,  Daven- 
port, Iowa,  for  information.     Prices,  60  cents,  $3,  $5,  and  up. 

Manual  Training  Tools.  Keen  Kutter  tools  are  good.  Inquire 
of  local  dealers.  Complete  equipments  may  be  had  from  E.  H. 
Sheldon  &  Company,  82  May  Street,  Chicago. 

Raffia.  Vaughan's  Seed  Store,  84  Randolph  Street,  Chicago. 
Use  easy  dyes  from  local  dealers  and  color  at  home;  this  is  much 
cheaper. 

Clay.  The  National  Clay  Supply  Company,  Macomb.  Illinois; 
price,  $2.50  per  hundred  pounds.  Also  the  White  Hall  Stoneware 
Company,  White  Hall,  Illinois.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  order  from 
special  companies  of  this  kind  than  from  general  school  supply 
houses. 

Paper.  Paper  for  drawing,  mounts,  booklets,  and  construction 
is  cheaper  when  purchased  in  quantity.  Get  samples  and  catalogs 
from  the  Prang  Educational  Company,  Chicago;  the  Milton  Brad- 
ley Company,  Springfield,  Massachusetts;  the  Garden  City  Educa- 
tion Company,  Chicago;  and  others. 

Primary  handwork,  supplies,  scissors,  water  colors,  etc.  Watch 
the  advertising  pages  of  the  School  Arts  Book  for  current  infor- 
mation on  these,  and  see  catalogs  of  the  Chicago  companies  listed 
above  for  paper;  also,  of  the  Thomas  Charles  Company,  Chicago, 
and  other  general  school  supply  houses. 

Colored  Crayons.  Crayons  from  local  dealers  at  5  cents  a  box; 
or  crayograph  from  the  American  Crayon  Company,  1230  Haj^es 
Avenue,  Sandusky,  Ohio,  at  7  cents  a  box.  Send  to  this  company 
for  catalog  of  all  kinds  of  crayons. 

Printing  Outfit.  A  rubber  stamp  printing  outfit  for  making 
primary  reading  charts  is  essential  in  country  teaching.  One  may 
be  purchased  for  $1.25  from  the  Atlas  School  Supply  Company, 
and  other  companies. 

Books.  Any  book  published  may  be  purchased  of  A.  C. 
McClurg  &  Company,  Chicago.  Discounts  on  orders  are  usually 
given    to    teachers.      Every    country    teacher    should    keep    some 


350 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


text-book    and    school    supply    catalogs    on    hand    for    reference. 
Address  any  of  the  following  companies: 

SOME   SCHOOL    SUPPLY    HOUSES    AND   EQUIPMENT   DEALERS 

E.  W.  A.  Rowles,  233-35  Market  Street,  Chicago. 

Haney  School  Furniture  Company,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan. 

A.  Flanagan  Company,  338  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago. 

Columbia  School  Supply  Company,  Indianapolis,  Indiana. 

Milton  Bradley  Company,  Springfield,  Massachusetts. 

Atlas  School  Supply  Company,  Chicago. 

Beckley-Cardy  Company,  312  West  Randolph  Street,  Chicago. 

SOME  SCHOOL  BOOK  PUBLISHERS 

The  Macmiilan  Company,  New  York. 
Ginn  &  Company,  Boston. 
Rand,  McNally  &  Company,  Chicago. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Company,  Chicago. 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Company,  Boston. 
Row,  Peterson  &  Company,  Chicago. 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago. 
The  American  Book  Company,  Chicago. 
Scott,  Foresman  &  Company,  Boston. 


EDUCATIONAL  HELPS  AND   SOURCES   FOR  COUNTRY 

TEACHERS 

There  are  now  many  aids  and  helps  at  the  free  or  inexpensive 
disposal  of  teachers.  Country  teachers  are  especially  benefited  by 
such  material,  but  often  do  not  know  where  to  find  it.  The 
following  references  have  therefore  been  prepared  as  a  partial 
source-list  for  their  convenience.  Everything  in  this  list  without 
price  attached  is  free. 

GEOGRAPHY    HELPS 

Pictures.  I.  C.  Hood  Company,  Lowell,  Massachusetts.  One 
cent  each  and  cheaper.  Sets  of  ten  on  various  countries.  Singer 
Sewing  Machine  Company,  address  nearest  large  town.  Set  of 
geography  pictures  free  as  advertisements. 

Exhibits.     The  following  sources  for  exhibits  are  taken   from  the 


APPENDIX 


351 


Journal  of  Geography,  for  September,  1912.  The  only  expense  for 
these  exhibits  is  express  and  sometimes  a  nominal  sum  for  the  materials 
included. 

Wheat  and  flour. — Washburn-Crosby  Company,  Minneapolis,  Minne- 
sota; Pillsbury  Company,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  Corn  and  corn 
products. — Corn  Products  Manufacturing  Company,  Chicago.  Silk. — 
Belding  Brothers  Company,  New  York  City;  Nonontuck  Silk  Com- 
pany, Florence,  Massachusetts ;  Cheney  Brothers,  South  Manchester, 
Massachusetts.  Cocoa  and  chocolate. — Huyler's,  New  York  City; 
Walter  Baker  &  Company,  Dorchester,  Massachusetts ;  Walter  M. 
Lowney,  Boston,  Massachusetts.  Cotton  and  by-products. — Hoosier 
Sheeting  Company,  Cannelton,  Indiana.  Wool. — Lone  Star  Woolen 
Mill  Company,  Minneapolis,  Minnesota ;  Globe  Woolen  Company, 
Utica,  New  York ;  Thomas  Oakes  &  Company,  Bloomfield,  New 
Hampshire.  Cattle  and  meat  packing. — Morris  &  Company,  Chicago; 
Armour  &  Company,  Chicago.  Petroleum. — Standard  Oil  Company, 
No.  5  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago.  Rubber  and  rubber  goods. — Hartford 
Rubber  Company,  Hartford,  Connecticut.  Graphite  and  pencils. — 
Eberhard  Faber  Company,  New  York  City.  Thread. — Clark  Thread 
Company,  East  Newark,  New  Jersey;  The  Spool  Cotton  Company, 
No.  80  White  Street,  New  York.  Rock  salt  and  brine. — Diamond 
Crystal  Salt  Company,  St.  Clair,  Michigan.  Paper. — Butler  Paper 
Company,  Monroe  Street,  Chicago.  Manila  hemp  and  sisal. — Inter- 
national Harvester  Company,  Chicago ;  McCormick  Twine  Company, 
Chicago.  Spices. — Thompson,  Taylor  &  Company,  ^Michigan  Avenue, 
Chicago.    Shears. — J.  Weiss  &  Sons,  Newark,  New  Jersey. 

Printed  Material.  Free  advertising  literature  from  various  rail- 
roads and  steamship  lines.  Select  addresses  from  magazine  adver- 
tisements. 

Outline  Maps.  By  D.  C.  Ridgley  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal 
University,  sold  in  sets  at  i  cent  each  by  McKnight  &  McKnight, 
Normal,  Illinois.  Also  wall  outline  maps  at  20  cents  each  from  the 
McKinley  Publishing  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Goode's  outline  maps  (small),  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
Chicago.     Price,  5  cents  each. 

Wall  Maps.  The  Scarborough  Company,  Indianapolis,  Indiana, 
publishes  a  good  leaflet  on  map  equipment.  Free  to  teachers.  Get 
similar  literature  from  the  Rand-McNally  Company,  Chicago. 

Stereoscopic  Views.  The  Keystone  View  Company,  St.  Louis, 
Missouri. 

Government   Publications.     See    Circular  94,   Free   Publications 


352 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  Classified  for  the  Use  of  Teach- 
ers. Address  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Free. 

READING    AND    LITERATURE 

Mother  Goose  Melodies.  For  primary  grades.  Publisher,  C.  M. 
Parker,  Taylorville,  Hlinois.     One  cent  each. 

Parker's  Penny  Classics.  Selected  poems  for  all  grades.  Pub- 
lisher and  price  as  above. 

Five  and  Ten  Cent  Classics.  Poems,  fables,  etc.  Educational 
Publishing  Company,  Chicago. 

Biographies  of  Great  American  and  English  Authors.  Forty- 
page  booklets,  covering  twenty-six  lives.  Five  or  more,  6  cents 
per  copy;  single  copies,  lo  cents.  Publisher,  C.  M.  Parker,  Taylor- 
ville, Hlinois. 

Brewer's  Classics.  Prose  and  poetry  for  all  grades.  Price  per 
copy,  5  and  6  cents.  The  Orville  T.  Brewer  Publishing  Company, 
Auditorium  Building,  Chicago.     Send  for  list. 

Riverside  Literature  Series.  Prose  and  poetry  classics  for  upper 
grades.  Price,  15  cents  each.  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Company, 
Chicago. 

AGRICULTURE 

State  Bulletins.  Teachers  should  procure  a  list  of  the  publica- 
tions of  their  state  college  of  agriculture  and  select  bulletins 
needed. 

Government  Bulletins.  Write  to  the  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  a  list  of  publications. 

The  Story  of  a  King  and  Queen.  A  bulletin  for  children  by 
Cyril  G.  Hopkins  on  corn  and  clover  rotation.  College  of  Agri- 
culture, Urbana,  Hlinois;  Circular  No.  15. 

Corn  Day  Annual  for  the  Elementary  Schools  of  Illinois.  Bulle- 
tin by  the  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  Springfield, 
Illinois. 

NATURE  STUDY 

Bird,  Animal,  and  Tree  Pictures.  Perry  Picture  Company, 
Maiden,  Massachusetts,  and  A.  W.  Mumford,  160  Adams  Street, 
Chicago.     Good  large  pictures,  in  colors.     Price,  2  cents  each. 

Farmers'  Bulletins.  Some  of  these  deal  with  nature-study  sub- 
jects. Send  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
list  and  make  selections.     Free. 


APPENDIX  333 


ARITHMETIC 

Farm  Arithmetic.  A  pamphlet  of  farm  problems.  Published  by 
the  Henry  Field  Seed  Company,  Clarinda,  Iowa.     Price,  25  cents. 

Number  Games.  For  drill  on  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, division,  and  fractions.  Cincinnati  Game  Company,  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.     Price,  25  cents  each. 

MANUAL   TRAINING   AND    HANDWORK 

Catalogs.  Many  suggestions  for  primary  handwork  can  be 
gathered  by  looking  through  catalogs.  Send  to  Milton  Bradley 
Company,  Springfield,  Massachusetts;  Thomas  Charles  Company, 
Chicago;  A.   Flanagan   Company,   Chicago;   and  others. 

Outfit  for  Country  Schools.  A  list  of  handwork  materials 
needed  for  a  country  school  of  twelve  pupils  is  sent  out  by  the 
Milton  Bradley  Company. 

MUSIC 

Codas.  Inexpensive  sheets  of  vocal  music  for  school  use. 
Excellent  material.  Prices,  2  to  5  cents.  Ginn  &  Company,  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 

Song  Books.  Old  Familiar  Songs,  Favorite  Songs,  Popular 
Songs,  Songs  of  the  Sunny  South,  and  other  collections.  Price,  8 
cents  each.  Also  Choice  Songs  for  Intermediate  Grades  at  15 
cents  per  copy.  Orville  T.  Brewer  Publishing  Company,  Audi- 
torium Building,  Chicago. 

General  Music  and  Song  Material.  For  general  information  on 
music  literature,  procure  and  consult  catalogs  of  the  following 
companies: 

The  Clayton  F.  Summy  Company,  220  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago. 

The  John  Church  Company,  Chicago. 

The  Oliver  Ditson  Company,  Boston. 

The  Orville  T.  Brewer  Publishing  Company,  Auditorium  Build- 
ing, Chicago. 

Silver,  Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago. 

GAMES,    PLAYS,    AND    RECREATION 

Play  Days.  Pamphlet.  The  Field  Day  and  Play  Picnic  for 
Country  Children,  by  Myron  T.  Scudder.  Charities  Publication 
Committee,  New  York.     Price,  10  cents. 

Singing  Games.  Singing  Games  for  Children,  by  Mari  Hofer. 
A.  Flanagan  Company.     Price,  30  cents. 


354 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


Educational  Games.  The  Cincinnati  Game  Company,  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio.  Good  for  indoor  recreation  and  seat  work.  Based 
upon  birds,  geography,  poems,  authors,  pictures,  number  tables, 
etc.     Prices,  25  and  35  cents. 

Outdoor  Games.  Play;  Its  Value,  and  Fifty  Games.  A  book  by 
Nina  B.  Lamkin,  Macomb,  111.  Price,  60  cents.  Address  the 
author. 

Johnson's  What  to  Do  at  Recess.  Ginn  &  Company.  Price,  25 
cents. 

LECTURES   AND   AIDS    FOR   COMMUNITY   WORK 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  Series.  Printed  lectures  illustrated 
with  stereopticon  slides;  free.  Farmers'  Institute  Specialist  John 
Hamilton.  Washington,  D.  C.     Send  for  list. 

Mothers'  Congress  Speakers.  Most  states  have  federations  of 
women's  clubs  which  furnish  free  speakers.  In  Illinois,  address 
Mrs.  Alfred  Bayliss.  Alacomb,  for  information. 

Normal  School  and  Agricultural  College  Speakers.  Speakers 
can  usually  be  obtained  for  expenses  from  these  institutions  by  a 
progressive  teacher. 

Grange  Lectures.  State  Grange  masters  will  send  organizers  out 
to  speak,  upon  request.  For  information,  address  Mr.  Robert 
Eaton,   Elwood,  Illinois. 

Photographs,  Lantern  Slides,  and  Articles  Loaned.  These  on 
subjects  relating  to  farm  life  will  be  loaned  free  to  country 
teachers  and  others  by  the  Service  Bureau  of  the  International 
Harvester  Company.  Chicago. 

A  Journal  of  Rural  Social  Progress.  The  Farmers'  Voice, 
Bloomington,  Illinois;  a  farm  journal  devoted  largely  to  reports 
of  concrete  social  work  in  country  communities.  Semi-monthly. 
Yearly  subscription,  50  cents. 

SCHOOL  ENTERTAINMENTS 

General  Helps.  See  lists  of  drills,  plays,  decorations,  etc.,  in 
catalogs  of  various  companies;  as,  the  A.  Flanagan  Company, 
Chicago;  Atkinson,  Mentzer  &  Grover,  Chicago;  Educational  Pub- 
lishing Company,  Chicago;  and  others. 

Dramas  and  Plays.  The  Dramatic  Publishing  Company,  258 
Dearborn  Street,  Chicago.     Select  only  the  best  from  catalog. 

Little  Women  and  Little  Men.     Two  wholesome  plays  adapted 


APPENDIX  325 

from  Louisa  May  Alcott's  books.  Little,  Brown  &  Company, 
Boston.     Price,  50  cents  each. 

The  St.  Nicholas  Book  of  Plays  and  Operettas.  An  excellent 
collection.     The  Century  Company,  New  York.     Price,  $1. 

New  Dialogues  and  Plays.  Three  sets,  for  children  from  5  to  10, 
from  10  to  15,  and  from  15  to  25.  Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge,  31-35 
West  Fifteenth  Street,  New  York.     Based  on  the  best  literature. 

DRAWING 

Applied  Art  Drawing  Books.  By  Wilhelmina  Seegmiller. 
Atkinson,  Menlzer  &  Grover,  Chicago.  Prices,  10  and  15  cents 
per  copy.  A  set  of  eight,  including  one  book  for  each  grade,  will 
be  all  a  teacher  needs. 

Text-books  of  Art  Education.  The  Prang  Educational  Com- 
pany, Chicago.     For  each  grade,  45  to  60  cents  each. 

PICTURES 

Small  Pictures.  Perry  Picture  Company,  Maiden,  Massachu- 
setts, and  G.  P.  Brown  &  Company,  38  Lovett  Street,  Beverley, 
Mass.  Prices,  H  cent,  i  cent,  and  5  cents.  Catalog  from  the 
Perry  Company  for  three  2-cent  stamps. 

Large  Wall  Pictures.  Horace  K.  Turner  Company,  Boston, 
Massachusetts;  Perry  Picture  Company;  A.  W.  Elson  &  Com- 
pany, 146  Oliver  Street,  Boston.     Prices  from  75  cents  up. 

PICTURE    STUDY 

Riverside  Art  Series.  Cover  lives  and  studies  of  twelve  artists. 
Millet  and  Landseer  are  especially  valuable  for  country  schools. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,  623  South  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago. 
Price,  50  cents  each. 

Studies  of  Famous  Pictures.  Picture  study  leaflets.  C.  M. 
Parker,  Taylorville,  Illinois.     Price,  15  cents  per  dozen. 

Great  Artist  Series.  Biographies  of  artists.  Educational  Pub- 
lishing Company.     Ten  cents  each. 

ART   EXHIBITS 

Traveling  art  exhibits  are  sent  out  by  both  the  Turner  and 
Elson  companies.  See  addresses  above,  under  Pictures.  Write 
for  terms  and  information. 


356   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

LIBRARY    BOOK    LISTS 

Illinois  Pupils'  Reading  Circle  Lists.  Contain  well-revised  lists 
of  books  for  each  grade.  Especially  prepared  for  country  schools. 
Address,  F.  A.  Kendall,  Naperville,  Illinois,  for  list.     Free. 

Annotated  List  of  Children's  Reading.  Issued  by  the  American 
Library  Association  Publishing  Board,  i  Washington  Street, 
Chicago.     List  gives  summary  of  each  book.     Price,  25  cents. 

List  of  Books  for  School  Children.  Bulletin  from  the  State 
Department  of  Education,  Lansing,  Michigan.  Classified  by 
grades.     Free. 

The  Use  of  the  School  Library  in  the  Homes  and  Schools  of 
Illinois.  Bulletin,  State  Department  of  Education.  Springfield, 
Illinois.  Books  listed  as  references  for  different  subjects  through 
various  grades.     Free. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Cyclopedia.  A  small,  new.  convenient,  and  low-priced  encyclo- 
pedia is  now  published  by  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  New  York 
or  Chicago.     Price,  $18. 

Magazine  Articles.  Rented  at  small  cost  for  use  in  geography, 
history,  or  debate.  H.  W.  Wilson  Company,  1401  University 
Avenue,    S.E.,    Minneapolis,    Minnesota. 

Courses  of  Study.  A  good  elementary  school  course  may  be  had 
from  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Macomb.  Con- 
tains also  useful  lists  of  stories,  poems,  songs,  books,  and  ref- 
erences for  each  grade. 

Post  Card  Projectors.  Buckeye  Stereopticon  Company,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  or  Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  918  Chestnut  Street, 
Philadelphia.     Price,  $3.50  up. 

Stereopticons  and  Lantern  Slides.  An  excellent  portable  stere- 
opticon is  made  by  Bausch  &  Lomb,  Rochester,  New  York.  Price, 
$58.  Lantern  slides  are  made  at  reasonable  prices  by  the  Badger 
Stereopticon  Company,  Platteville,  Wisconsin. 

Explanation  of  Government  Publications 

No  free  material  contains  so  much  assistance  for  country  teachers 
as  Government  publications.  It  is  a  great  loss  that  so  few  teachers 
use  these  advantageously.  Knowing  that  much  of  this  disuse  is 
due  to  insufficient  knowledge,  the  following  brief  explanation  of  their 
classification  is  made. 


APPENDIX  ,        3C7 

Publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  fall  in 
two  great  classes,  free  and  pay  documents.  All  free  bulletins  are  listed 
in  Circular  2  of  the  Division  of  Publications,  entitled  Publications  for 
Free  Distribution,  which,  with  all  other  free  material,  may  be  obtained 
by  addressing  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Every 
country  teacher  should  write  for  this  circular  and  keep  it  in  her 
possession  for  reference  in  selecting  other  bulletins. 

All  pay  publications  of  the  national  government  are  handled  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  can  be  obtained 
from  him  only.  Teachers  should  write  to  the  Superintendent  for  any 
one  price  list.  The  first  page  of  this  list  will  then  contain  a  list  of 
all  other  price  lists,  and  from  this  those  desired  may  be  selected  and 
had  for  the  asking.  These,  in  turn,  become  catalogs  from  which  to 
order  individual  bulletins.  By  keeping  track  of  these  two  divisions,  the 
free  and  pay  publications,  any  country  teacher  thus  places  the  great 
wealth  of  the  whole  Department  of  Agriculture  at  her  command. 

Aside  from  this  two-fold  classification  of  government  material,  an- 
other organization  should  be  understood.  There  are  within  the  national 
Department  of  Agriculture  eleven  scientific  bureaus :  namely,  Tx'eather, 
animal  industry,  plant  industry,  forest  service,  chemistry,  soils,  ento- 
mology, biological  survey,  statistics,  experiment  stations  (which  cover 
all  agricultural  education  bulletins),  and  public  roads.  Each  of  these 
bureaus  issues  a  publication  list  containing  all  the  bulletins,  both  free 
and  pay,  that  relate  to  its  field.  From  the  Office  of  Public  Roads,  for 
example,  a  road  list  may  be  obtained,  listing  everything  put  out  by  the 
government  on  roads.  Country  teachers  should  have  such  of  these 
bureau  publication  lists  as  are  found  useful  in  their  work.  Care  must 
be  taken,  since  these  publications  scarcely  meet  present  demands,  to 
request  only  material  that  is  necessary. 

Of  these  special  lists  included  in  the  above  classification,  attention  is 
called  particularly  to  the  farmers'  bulletins,  some  of  which  should  be  in 
use  in  every  country  school  and  which  are  sent  free  upon  application 
to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  Another  publication,  also  free,  from 
the  Secretary,  is  Circular  94,  entitled  Free  Publications  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Classified  for  the  Use  of  Teachers.  The  Official 
Report  of  the  Country  Life  Commission,  Document  No.  705,  which  no 
country  teacher  should  fail  to  read  under  any  consideration,  may  be 
purchased  of  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  10  cents. 

After  the  general  organization  and  service  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  understood,  all  country  teachers  who  desire  to  watch  its 


358   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

current  publications  may  ask  to  have  their  names  placed  or  the 
Monthly  Mailing  List.  Circulars  will  then  be  forwarded  monthly 
from  which  full  information  of  all  the  publications  issued  may  be 
obtained. 

VI 

A  WORKABLE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  PROGRAM 

No  problem  of  country  school  management  involves  greater  difficulty 
than  the  arrangement  of  the  program.  The  following  program,  though 
by  no  means  faultless,  is  offered  as  an  organization  containing  fewer 
classes  and  longer  periods  than  ordinarily  found.  This  devoutly-to-be- 
wished  consummation  has  been  brought  about  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  reducing  the  school  to  five  grades. 

This  was  done  through  the  alternation  and  elimination  of  grades.  By 
alternation  is  meant  the  teaching  of  the  even  grades — first,  second, 
fourth,  six,  and  eighth — in  the  odd-numbered  years  (1911-13,  etc.), 
and  the  teaching  of  the  odd  grades — first,  second,  third,  fifth,  and 
seventh — in  the  even-numbered  years  (i9o8-*io-'i2,  etc.).  This  plan 
is  not  always  possible,  but  is  commonly  practiced  throughout  the  whole 
rural  school  system  of  some  states,  and  can  frequently  be  adopted  by 
the  individual  teacher. 

By  the  elimination  of  grades  is  meant  the  cutting  out  of  one  or  more 
grades.  To  illustrate,  in  the  school  where  this  program  was  worked 
out,  the  teacher  decided  to  dissolve  the  fifth  grade.  The  three  children 
of  this  grade  were  accordingly  given  the  privilege  of  a  trial  in  the 
sixth  grade  for  two  weeks,  with  the  understanding  that  failure  here 
meant  a  return  to  the  fourth  grade.  Care  was  taken  that  both  parents 
and  children  should  appreciate  the  increased  advantage  of  such  a 
movement  to  the  school  as  a  whole.  Usually  this  appeases  them.  But 
no  teacher,  however  capable,  can  advantageously  handle  more  than 
five  grades.  The  change  is  therefore  legitimate,  regardless  of  parental 
obj  ection. 

2.  By  alternating  classes. 

Compare  eighth  grade  geography  and  physiology ;  also  eighth  grade 
history  and  civics.    This  plan  is  familiar  to  all  teachers. 

3.  By  combining  classes. 

Many  classes,  as  the  sixth  and  eighth  reading  classes,  can  well  be 
combined.    This  may  be  done  more  often  than  commonly  practiced. 

4.  By  teaching  some  things  secondarily;  that  is,  in  relation  to  others. 
Some  subjects,  language  and  penmanship  especially,  are  given  motive 


APPENDIX 


359 


and  improved  by  emphasizing  this  relationship.  Notice  in  this  pro- 
gram that  language  in  both  the  fourth  and  sixth  grades  is  taught  in 
relation  to  geography  and  history. 

5.     By  considering  the  school  in  two  groups  for  some  purposes. 

Two  general  classes  are  offered  on  this  program ;  one  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  lower  grades  and  one  for  the  advanced  children.  These 
classes  provide  an  opportunity  for  introducing  desirable  work  usually 
crowded  out  of  the  country  school,  and  are  recommended  as  perhaps 
the  best  feature  of  this  program.  Stories,  poems,  dramatization,  con- 
struction work,  water  color,  and  primary  songs  may  be  given  during 
this  period,  and  a  similar  schedule  offering  nature  study  and  agricul- 
ture may  be  arranged  for  the  upper  grades.  Each  subject  may  be 
given  once  a  week,  or,  in  the  upper  grades,  continuously  for  several 
days  or  weeks.  Plan  each  day  of  this  work  carefully,  as  the  tempta- 
tion to  drift  in  such  a  class  is  greater  than  in  the  conventional  text- 
book recitation. 

PLANNING  THE  DAILY  WORK 

The  efficiency  of  this  program,  or  of  any  program,  is  greatly 
increased  by  making  brief  outline  plans  of  the  day's  work.  The  hurried 
country  teacher  will  find  it  advisable  to  devote  a  special  note-book  to 
this  purpose.  The  merest  suggestion  of  the  ground  to  be  covered  in 
each  class  will  suffice,  but  the  whole  program  from  nine  o'clock  until 
four  should  be  covered.  For  example,  in  first  grade  reading  it  is 
enough  to  record  the  sentences  or  words  to  be  used  for  the  next  lesson ; 
while  in  history  and  geography  classes,  the  one,  two,  or  three  chief 
points  to  be  emphasized  in  the  recitation  will  suffice.  Such  planning 
when  regularly  practiced  becomes  not  only  the  basis  of  good  reviewing 
but  the  teacher's  greatest  safeguard  against  insufficient  and  negligent 
preparation. 

Country  School  Program  for  Five  Grades 

9:00-  9:10 — Opening  exercises. 
9:10-  9:20 — First  reading. 
9:20-  9:35 — Second  reading. 
9  ^35-  9  ^50 — Fourth  arithmetic. 
9:50-10:10 — Sixth  arithmetic. 
10:10-10:30 — Eighth  arithmetic. 

Recess 

10:45-10:55 — First  reading,  word  drill,  or  numbers. 
10:55-11:05 — Second  numbers. 


360   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

10:05-11 :20 — Fourth  geography — language. 

II  :20-ii  :40 — Sixth  history — language. 

II  :40-i2:oo — Eighth  geography — physiology. 

Noon 

I  :oo-  I  :io — First  reading. 
I  :io-  I  :20 — Second  reading. 
1 :20-  I  :35 — Fourth  reading. 

1  -35-  I  -55 — Sixth  geography — language. 
1:55-  2:15 — Eighth  history — civics. 
2:15-  2:30 — Written  spelhng,  all  grades. 

Recess 

2  :45-  3  :05 — General  primary  class  for  lower  grades — literature,  con- 

struction, drawing,  music,  etc. 

3  :o5-  3  :30 — Advanced  reading,  sixth  and  eighth  grades,  and  English 

and  grammar,  eighth  grade. 
3 :30-  4  :oo — General  advanced  class   for  upper  grades — nature   study, 
agriculture,  home  science,  drawing,  music,  etc. 


VII 

SEAT   WORK   IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS   AND    SOME    PRIN- 
CIPLES UNDERLYING  IT 

Two  fundamental  principles  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  selecting  and 
planning  every  piece  of  handwork.  When  these  are  adhered  to,  the 
w^ork  cannot  be  wholly  wrong,  i.  Handwork  is  simply  one  form  of 
expression,  and  should  therefore  embody  some  idea  to  express.  2.  It 
should  he  related  to,  and  made  to  groiv  out  of,  other  phases  of  school 
work. 

To  the  inexperienced  teacher  there  often  seems  to  be  neither  end 
nor  classification  to  handwork.  The  whole  subject  seems  to  present 
a  motley  array  of  separate  and  unrelated  tasks.  Unfortunately,  it  is 
often  taught  in  this  way.  The  following  classification  has  assisted 
some  teachers  in  getting  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  subject  and  grasping 
its  underlying  principles.  There  are.  after  all,  but  five  distinct  processes 
involved  in  ordinary  seatwork.  These  processes,  or  activities,  and  the 
materials,  or  mediums,  through  which  they  are  worked  out  are  as 
follows : 


APPENDIX 


Processes — Materials  Used 


361 


Sewing — Cloth  and  cardboard. 

Cutting  and  folding — Paper. 

Drawing  and  stick  laying— Crayons,  water  colors,  and  shoe-pegs. 

Modeling — Clay  and  sand. 

Weaving — Paper,  raffia,  reeds,  grasses,  etc. 

To  make  this  explanation  clear,  let  it  be  applied  concretely.  Take 
the  familiar  story  of  the  "Three  Bears."  Referring  to  the  five  processes 
above,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  five  activities  might  be  exercised  through 
this  one  story.  Different  scenes  may  be  cut,  or  drawn,  or  painted; 
the  bowls,  spoons,  beds,  tables,  and  chairs  may  be  sewed  as  card 
patterns  or  shaped  in  outline  form  on  the  desk  with  shoe-pegs,  or 
modeled  in  clay;  while  the  whole  setting  of  the  story,  house,  forest, 
and  all,  may  be  worked  out  in  detail  on  the  s:ind-table.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  tire  the  children  of  any  one  story,  so  it  will  be  advisable 
to  develop  each  one  through  but  two  or  three  of  the  activities  possible, 
choosing  those  to  which  it  is  best  adapted. 

Some  Seatzvork  Problems.  In  well-planned  courses  of  study  the 
seatwork  is  always  an  outgrowth,  never  an  addition,  or  something 
dragged  in  merely  to  keep  children  busy ;  hence  the  incongruity  of 
separate  handwork  courses  and  the  impossibility  of  showing  a  course 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  curriculum.  But  teachers  so  often  com- 
plain of  a  scarcity  of  ideas  for  seatwork  that  a  few  problems  are 
offered  here  as  illustrations  of  this  relationship.  When  this  connection 
is  once  understood,  more  suggestions  for  handwork  present  themselves 
than  can  possibly  be  used. 

A  Sand-Table  Farm.  Any  school  can  have  a  sand-table.  Make  one 
of  some  kind,  then  model  a  miniature  farm  upon  it.  Put  on  all  the 
buildings,  the  trees,  fields,  pastures,  streams,  and  even  the  people  and 
animals.  Make  the  house  and  barn  of  either  paper  or  wood,  the  water 
of  broken  bits  of  mirror,  and  the  woods  of  real  twigs.  Cut  the 
farmer  and  his  family  and  live-stock  from  magazine  pictures  or  free- 
handed from  plain  paper.  By  the  time  all  this  is  completed  it  will  be 
found  that  much  seatwork  has  been  necessary  in  its  preparation.  But 
the  serviceableness  of  the  farm  has  but  just  begun.  Handwork,  in 
fact,  is  rather  a  by-product  than  an  original  investment  in  its  construc- 
tion. The  chief  purpose  of  the  sand-table  farm  is  to  furnish  a  basis 
for  primary  reading  lessons.  The  seatwork  involved,  however,  was 
fundamentally  necessary  and  therefore  of  meaning  and  value  to  the 
children. 


362   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

A  Doll  House.  Another  project  that  calls  for  weeks  of  interesting 
and  profitable  seatwork  is  the  doll  house.  This  may  be  made  of  a 
large  wooden  box  or  built  of  lumber.  As  the  task  progresses,  an 
industrial  study  of  house  building  is  made  as  a  basis  for  future  work 
in  geography  and  history.  Then  follow  the  interior  finishing,  decora- 
tion, and  furnishing.  Wall  paper  must  be  designed,  rugs  woven,  beds, 
tables,  chairs,  and  dressers  made,  and  even  the  clothing  of  the  doll 
family  is  to  be  provided.  In  the  meantime  a  whole  series  of  interesting 
reading  lessons  has  been  possible. 

Booklets.  Individual  booklets  to  take  home  as  gifts  furnish  another 
good  problem  in  seatwork.  These  are  best  when  based  upon  a  definite 
interest,  as  a  Hiawatha  book,  a  story  book,  or  a  nature  study  book, 
though  a  general  book  of  handwork  is  also  good,  and  geography, 
language,  and  picture  study  books  are  much  worth  while  in  the  inter- 
mediate grades. 

Primitive  Life  Stories.  Among  the  best  books  yet  out  on  seatwork 
is  the  primitive  life  series,  entitled  "The  Tree  Dwellers,"  "The  Early 
Cavemen,"  and  "The  Later  Cavemen,"  by  Katherine  E.  Dopp,  pub- 
lished by  Rand,  McNally  &  Company,  Chicago,  at  45  cents  each.  These 
are  history  books,  but  aid  in  handwork  is  one  of  their  chief  virtues. 
After  each  chapter  numerous  suggestions  are  offered  of  "things  to  do." 
These  furnish  an  abundance  of  handwork  and  are  so  vitally  related  to 
the  subject-matter  given  that  they  become  natural  forms  of  expression. 

Child  Life  Stories.  Sand-table  scenes  of  the  geography  studies  of 
children  in  other  lands  furnish  many  lessons  also.  Not  only  the  homes 
with  their  furnishings  may  be  worked  out,  but  the  costumes,  too.  This 
is  best  done  through  the  dressing  of  dolls. 

Handzvork  Management.  The  management  of  handwork  instruction 
and  of  the  materials  used,  involves  no  small  difficulty  in  country  schools. 
Much  inconvenience  is  occasioned,  for  one  thing,  in  giving  the  help 
necessary  to  each  child.  It  is  great  economy,  therefore,  to  take  up 
the  teaching  of  the  five  processes  in  some  regular  recitation  period, 
probably  in  the  primary  class  listed  on  the  program  above.  After 
such  explanation  the  children  can  proceed  quite  independently.  Let 
some  of  the  older  children  oversee  the  seatwork  of  the  younger  ones. 
This  can  be  practiced  to  the  advantage  of  all  in  a  school  of  the  right 
spirit. 

Another  difficulty  arises  because  some  children  work  faster  than 
others.  For  this,  do  not  discourage  rapidity,  but  devise  a  system 
elastic  enough  to  accommodate  all.  Provide  daily  enough  slips  of 
paper  for  each  grade  requiring  seatwork  assignments.     Then  on  the 


APPENDIX 


363 


one  for  the  first  grade,  for  example,  list  all  the  different  seatwork 
problems  that  relate  to  the  work  of  the  day,  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  educational  value.  Through  this  plan,  as  soon  as  a  quick  child 
has  finished  his  task  a  new  one  awaits  him  and  there  is  no  distracted 
teacher  vainly  racking  her  brain  for  an  assignment.  In  the  case  of 
the  third  and  fourth  grades,  these  cards  or  slips  may  be  tacked  up 
where  the  children  can  see  them,  making  it  possible  for  each  child  to 
refer  to  them  and  proceed  at  his  own  rate  without  further  direction 
from  the  busy  teacher. 

The  care  of  materials  is  another  vital  matter  in  handwork  instruc- 
tion in  country  schools.  Indeed,  much  of  the  success  of  the  whole 
room  management  and  of  the  teaching  process  itself  depends  upon  this. 
Good  housekeeping  is  a  fundamental  requisite  of  the  country  teacher. 
Various  plans  for  the  care  of  materials  may  be  worked  out.  A  closet 
or  cabinet  of  some  kind  is  almost  necessary  for  general  stores.  For 
the  individual  work  each  child  may  have  his  own  box,  containing  his 
personal  equipment,  or  the  different  kinds  of  work  may  be  classified 
in  separate  boxes  or  drawers.  In  this,  each  teacher  must  suit  her  own 
convenience.  The  important  thing  is  that  a  definite,  systematic  plan 
be  developed  and  followed.  Froebel  himself  could  never  have  taught 
a  presentable  lesson  in  cutting  when  he  failed  to  find  the  scissors. 


VIII 

PICTURES  THAT   PORTRAY  FARM  LIFE 

The  good  country  school  jmplants  a  love  of  the  open  country.  With 
the  thought  of  increasing  this  idealism  through  drawing  and  picture 
study,  some  experiments  were  conducted  in  the  Country  Training 
School  of  the  Western  Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Macomb,  through 
the  years  1906,  1907,  and  1908,  which  resulted  in  the  selection  of  the 
following  list  of  pictures.  This  list  does  not  include  all  the  pictures 
children  should  know,  to  be  sure;  neither  does  it  furnish  type-studies 
of  all  the  various  classes  of  paintings.  It  is  simply  a  list  of  some 
pictures  that  portray  farm  life,  help  to  idealize  it,  and  have  been  found 
popular  with  country  children  through  actual  experiment. 

All  these  pictures  and  others  may  be  had  m  small  reproductions 
large  enough  for  class  study  for  one  cent  each.  Most  of  them  can 
be  procured  in  a  five-cent  edition,  and  many  of  the  landscapes  may  be 
had  in  colors  for  wall  decoration.     For  information,   see  catalogs  of 


364 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


picture  firms  quoted  in  section  5  of  this  appendix.     Those  selected  by 
the  children  as  special  favorites  are  marked  with  an  asterisk. 


Breton — 

*The  Song  of  the  Lark. 
Millet— 

*The  Gleaners. 
*The  Sower. 
*Angelus, 

Going  to  Work. 

Potato  Planting. 

Woman  Churning. 
*Feeding  Her  Birds. 
*The  Rainbow. 

The  First  Step. 
Landseer — 

A  Distinguished  Member 
of  the  Humane  Society. 
*Saved. 

*Dignity  and  Impudence. 
^Shoeing  the  Bay  Mare. 
*King  of  the'  Forest. 

The  Sanctuary. 

Laying  Down  the  Law. 
Corot — 
*Spring. 

Dance  of  the  Nymphs. 

Landscape  with  Horsemen. 
*Landscape  with  Cottages. 
*The  Lake. 
Troy  on — 
*Return  to  the  Farm. 
*Evening  in  May. 

Holland  Cattle. 
Rosa  Bonheur — 

Oxen  Ploughing. 

On  the  Alert. 

A  Noble  Charger. 
*A  Norman  Sire. 
*A  Humble  Servant. 

Weaning  the  Calves. 


Dupre — 
The  Haymakers. 
*The  Balloon. 
Milking  Time. 
Escaped  Cow. 
On  the  Prairie. 
Herring — 
*Three  Members  of  a 
Temperance  Society. 
Pharaoh's  Horses. 
Village  Blacksmith. 
Le  Rolle— 
*By  the  River. 
*The  Shepherdess. 

Riiysdael — 
*Landscape  with  Windmill. 
Landscape  with  Waterfall. 
Inness — 

The  Coming  Storm. 
*Autumn  Gold. 
Landscape. 
Mauve — 
Autumn. 
Spring. 
Gorier — 
*Fading  Light  of  Day. 
Paul  Potter— 
The  Prairie. 
Hobbenia — 
*Avenue  of  Trees. 

Constable — 
*The  Cornfield. 
Valley  Farm. 
Rieke — 
*Sunset  Glow. 
Road  to  the  Village. 
Zuber — 
*September. 


APPENDIX 


365 


Hunt — 
*Deer  by  Moonlight. 

Hart— 
*The  Brookside. 

Davis — 
*Close  of  Day. 
Twilight. 
Adam — 

Cat  and  Kittens  at  Play. 
Douglas — 
Winter. 
Spring. 
*Young  England. 
Mother  and  Daughter. 
Hovenden — 
*Breaking  Home  Ties. 
Kowalski — 


The  Lone  Wolf. 

Griffin — 
Sunset  on  the  Meadows. 

Adan — 

The  End  of  Day. 
Across  the  Fields. 

Jacque — 
In  the  Pasture. 

Van  Marc  lie — 
Farm  Scene  with  Cattle. 

Picknell — 
The  Road  to  Concarneau. 

Griieze — 
*The  Broken  Pitcher. 

Eggleston — 
Dawn. 


IX 


SOME  COUNTRY  LIFE  LITERATURE 
Another  means  of  increasing  rural  idealism  in  the  country  school  is 
through  the  teaching  of  literary  selections  which  idealize  farm  living. 
Many  country  teachers  realize  this  opportunity  but  do  not  know  where 
to  turn  for  such  material.  For  this  reason  the  following  lists  are 
inserted. 

In  making  these  lists  the  aim  has  been  to  include,  not  nature  poems 
and  sketches,  but  only  those  selections  that  refer  specifically  to  real 
farm  life.  This  has  greatly  narrowed  the  field.  "We  have  practically 
no  good  poems  of  American  farm  life,"  says  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  in 
commenting  on  the  present  status  of  rural  literature.  "A  poem  on 
the  plowboy  is  very  likely  to  be  one  that  sees  the  plowboy  from  the 
highway  rather  than  one  that  expresses  the  real  sentiment  of  labor 
on  the  land.  I  do  not  know  where  I  can  find  a  dozen  first-class  poems 
of  farming.  Farm  poems  are  usually  written  from  the  study  outv/ard 
and  by  persons  who  see  farming  at  long  range,  or  who  come  to  it  with 
the  city  man's  point  of  view.  .  .  .  We  have  very  few  good  novels 
depicting  the  real  farmer.  A  good  many  farm  characters  have  been 
drawn,  but  most  of  them  are  caricatures,  whether  so  intended  or  not, 
and  present  a  type  of  life  and  a  vocabulary  which,  if  they  exist  at  all, 
are  greatly  the  exception." 

Under  such  limitations  it  is  evident  that  this  list  cannot  be  wholly 


366   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

satisfactory.  It  contains  some  of  the  best  literature  available  for  this 
purpose,  however.  Selections  that  have  proved  most  effective  with 
country  children  in  awakening  and  expressing  a  love  of  the  land  are 
marked  with  an  asterisk.  All  books  quoted  may  be  purchased  from 
such  book-jobbers  as  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Company,  Chicago,  or  the 
Baker  &  Taylor  Company,  New  York. 

Short  Poems 

For  class  study.     Suitable  for  memorising  if  desired 

L.  H.  Bailey — In  a  collection  published  by  the  Roycrofters,  East  Aurora, 
New  York,  price  50  cents:  *The  Farmer's  Challenge.  *The  Farmer. 
*The  Country  School.  Also  in  Butterfield's  TJie  Country  Church  and 
the  Rural  Problem.  *The  Country  Church. 

James  Whitcomb  Riley — In  Poems  Here  at  Home:  *Our  Hired  Girl. 
*The  Raggedy  Man.  *Thoughts  for  a  Discouraged  Farmer.  In 
Afterzvhiles:  *01d  Aunt  Mary's.  A  Voice  from  the  Farm.  In 
Neighborly  Poems:  *When  the  Frost  Is  on  the  Punkin.  In  Child 
Rhymes:  The  Boy  Lives  on  Our  Farm.  *\Vaitin'  for  the  Cat  to  Die. 
The  Old  Hay-Mow.  In  Farm  Rhymes  the  following:  A  Country 
Pathway.  *How  John  Quit  the  Farm.  *Knee-deep  in  June.  Old 
Winters  on  the  Farm.  A  Song  of  Long  Ago.  *Up  and  Down  Old 
Brandywine.  Wet  Weather  Talk.  *When  the  Green  Gits  Back  in 
the  Trees.    Where  the  Children  Used  to  Play. 

Eugene  Field — In  Poems  of  Childhood:  To  a  Little  Brook.  *Over  the 
Hills  and  Far  Away. 

Paul  Laurence  Dunbar — In  Lyrics  of  Lowly  Life:  The  Old  Apple  Tree. 
The  Corn-stalk  Fiddle.  A  Corn  Song.  The  Spellin'  Bee.  In  Lyrics 
of  Sunshine  and  Shadozc:  A  Boy's  Summer  Song.  *Wadin'  in  de 
Crick.    *The  Farm  Child's  Lullaby. 

Robert  Louis  Stevenson — In  A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses:  Foreign 
Lands.  *The  Cow.  *The  Hayloft.  *The  Swing.  Farewell  to  the 
Farm,     *Autumn  Fires. 

Lida  B.  Mc^slurry's  Songs  of  Treetop  and  Meadow:  *September,  by 
Helen  Hunt  Jackson.  Clovers,  by  Helena  L.  Jelliffe.  *The  Chickens. 
Mowing.     The  Oak  Tree,  by  Emily  H.  Miller. 

John  Burroughs'  Songs  of  Nature:  *The  Joy  of  the  Road,  by  Bhss 
Carman.  Green  Things  Growing,  by  Dinah  ]\I.  Craig.  *The  Wind 
Across  the  Wheat,  by  Margaret  Sangster.  The  Toil  of  the  Trail,  by 
Hamlin  Garland.     To  a  Troublesome  Fly,  by  Thomas  McKellar. 

Eliza  Cook— See  volume  of  poems.     *The  Horse.     *The  Old  Farm- 
•Gate.     The  Old  Barn.    *OId  Dobbin.     Song  of  the  Haymakers. 


APPENDIX 


Z^7 


Whittier's  Po^;«^— Telling  the  Bees.  *The  Barefoot  Boy.  *In  School 
Days.    The  Homestead.    *The  Huskers  and  the  Corn  Song. 

Bryant's  Po^m.y— *The  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree.  An  Invitation  to 
the  Country.  *The  Prairies.  *To  a  Water  Fowl.  Lines  on  Revisit- 
ing the  Country.  "Oh,  Fairest  of  the  Rural  Maids."  *Ode  for  an 
Agricultural  Celebration. 

Longfellow's  Poems— "^Th^  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs.     Rain  in  Summer. 

Holmes'  Poems— '^T\\t  Plowman.  *The  Deacon's  ^Masterpiece,  or  the 
Wonderful  "One-Hoss  Shay." 

Lowell's  Poems — *The  Oak.  An  Indian  Summer  Reverie.  *To  the 
Dandelion.  The  Pioneer.  What  Is  So  Rare  as  a  Day  in  June? 
On  Planting  a  Tree  at  Inveraray. 

Wordsworth's  Poems— *The  Daffodils.  *My  Heart  Leaps  Up  When  I 
Behold  a  Rainbow  in  the  Sky.    *The  Reaper.    Repentance. 

Shelley's  Poems — *The  cloud.    *To  a  Skylark. 

Burns'  Poems — *The  Auld  Farmer's  New^-Year  Morning  Salutation  to 
His  Auld  Mare,  Maggie.  *To  a  Mouse  on  Turning  Her  Up  in  Her 
Nest  with  a  Plow\  *To  a  Mountain  Daisy.  My  Father  was  a 
Farmer.     *John  Barleycorn. 

Browning's  Poems — Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad.  *The  Year's  at 
the  Spring. 

Long  Poems 

For  extended  class  study 

*Elegy  Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard.     Gray. 
*AIichael.     Wordsworth. 
*Evangeline.     Longfellow. 
*Hiawatha's  Fasting.     Longfellow. 
*The  Deserted  Village.    Goldsmith. 

Maud  MuUer.     Whittier. 
*Snowbound.     Whittier. 
*Tam  o'  Shanter.    Burns. 

Sunthin  in  the  Pastoral  Line.    Lowell's  Biglow  Papers. 
*Cotter's  Saturday  Night.    Burns. 

The  Song  of  the  Sower.     Bryant. 

To  My  Old  Schoolmaster.    Whittier. 

Prose  Selections 
For  extended  class  study 
*The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow.     Irving. 
*Rip  Van  Winkle.    Irving. 


368   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

*Poor  Richard's  Almanac.    Franklin. 

Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers  (selections).    Addison. 
*Vicar  of  Wakefield.    Goldsmith. 

Wood  Magic  (The  Blue  Flower).    Van  Dyke. 

Spy  Rock  (The  Blue  Flower).    Van  Dyke. 

Novels 

*Adventures  in  Contentment.    David  Grayson. 

*Being  a  Boy.    C.  D.  Warner. 

*Prairie  Folks.     Hamlin  Garland. 

*Main  Traveled  Roads.     Hamlin  Garland. 

*Boy  Life  on  the  Prairie.    Hamlin  Garland. 

*Eben  Holden.    Irving  Bacheller. 

*David  Harum.    Westcott. 

*Courts  of  Boyville.    William  Allen  White. 

*The  Country  Doctor.     S.  O.  Jewett. 

Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier  Bush.     Ian  ]\Iaclaren. 

In  Ole  Virginia.    Thomas  N.  Page. 
*Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm.     Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 

The  Kentucky  Cardinal.    James  Lane  x\llen. 
*The  Reign  of  Law.    James  Lane  Allen. 

The  Sky  Pilot.     Ralph  Connor. 

The  Circuit  Rider.    Eggleston. 

The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster.     Eggleston. 
*Jean  JMitchell's  School.    Angelina  Wray. 

In  the  Morning  Glow.    R.  R.  Gilson. 

The  Call  of  the  Wild.    Jack  London. 
*Black  Beauty.    MoUie  E.  Seawell. 

X 

COUNTRY  SCHOOL  MUSIC  AND  FARM  LIFE  SONGS 

The  country  school  presents  a  difficult  problem  in  music.  Songs 
that  are  suitable  for  the  lower  grades  are  too  childish  for  the  upper 
ones,  and  those  adapted  to  older  children  are  beyond  the  interest  and 
ability  of  younger  children.  About  the  most  practical  plan  for  nmsic 
instruction  is  to  consider  the  school  in  two  groups,  the  lower  group 
including  grades  one  to  four,  and  the  advanced  group  grades  five  to 
eight.  When  this  is  done,  the  next  question  is  where  to  find  desirable 
song   material.     Only  the  best   of   songs   need,   and   should,   be   used. 


APPENDIX 


369 


These  are  now  as  easy  and  as  inexpensive  as  any,  and  there  can  be  no 
excuse  for  the  use  of  inferior  selections. 

The  field  of  song  may  also  be  made  a  great  stimulant  for  the 
idealization  of  country  life.  The  following  list  of  song  sources  and 
of  farm  life  songs  is  included  here  to  assist  country  teachers  in  making 
selections  toward  this  double  end  of  good  musical  knowledge  and 
country  Hfe  spiritualization.  For  further  convenience,  these  songs  and 
books  are  listed  in  two  groups,  and  those  that  have  proved  most 
popular  with  the  country  children,  for  whom  they  were  originally 
collected,  are  starred. 

SONG  BOOKS  FOR  COUNTRY   SCHOOL  USE 

For  all  grades 

*i.  Elements  of  Music  in  Song.  F.  W.  Westhoff.  Public  School 
Publishing  Company,  Bloomington,  Illinois.     Price,  45  cents. 

*2.  Common  School  Book  of  Vocal  Music.  Eleanor  Smith.  Silver, 
Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  40  cents. 

*3.  Choice  Songs  for  Intermediate  Grades.  Orville  T.  Brewer  Pub- 
lishing  Company,    Chicago.      Price,    15   cents    each. 

4.  Children's  Singing  Games  Old  and  New.    Mari  Hofer.    A.  Flana- 

gan Company,  Chicago.    Price,  30  cents. 

For  loix'er  grades 

5.  Songs  of  the  Child  World,  No.  i.     Riley  and  Gaynor.     The  John 

Church  Company.  Chicago.     Price,  $1. 

*6.     Songs  of  the  Child  World,  No.  2.     Same  authors,  company,  and 
price. 
7.     Lilts  and  Lyrics.     Riley  and  Gaynor.     Clayton  F.  Summy  Com- 
pany, Chicago.     Price,  $1. 

*8.  Primer,  Modern  Music  Series.  Eleanor  Smith.  Silver,  Bur- 
dett &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  25  cents. 

*g.  First  Book,  Modern  Music  Series.  Author  and  company  as 
above.     Price.  30  cents. 

''lo.     Second  Book,  Modern  Music  Series.     Price,  40  cents. 

11.  The  Song  Primer.    A.  E.  Bentley.     A.  S.  Barnes  Company,  New 

York.    Price,  $1. 

12.  Songs  in  Season.     George  and  Coonley.     A.  Flanagan  Company, 

Chicago.     Price,  50  cents. 

13.  First  Reader,  New  Educational  Music  Course.     McLaughlin  and 

Gilchrist.     Ginn  &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  30  cents. 

14.  Second  Reader,  above  series.    Price,  30  cents. 


370   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

For  upper  grades 

*i5.  The  Abridged  Academy  Song  Book.  Levermore.  Ginn  &  Com- 
pany, Chicago.     Price,  75  cents. 

*i6.  AUernate  Third  Book,  Modern  Music  Series.  Eleanor  Smith. 
Silver,  Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  50  cents. 

*I7.     Fourth  Book,  above  series.     Price,  75  cents. 

18.  Songs  of  Life  and  Nature.     Eleanor  Smith.     Scott,  Foresman  & 

Company,  Chicago.     Price,  75  cents. 

19.  Folk  Songs  of  Many  Nations.    Louis  C.  Elson.    The  John  Church 

Company,  Chicago.    Price,  $1. 

20.  Favorite  Songs  and  Hymns.     J.   P.  ]\IcCaskey.     American  Book 

Company.     Price,  80  cents. 

21.  Songs  of  America  and  Homeland.     Charles  W.  Johnson.     Silver, 

Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  60  cents. 

22.  Songs  of  the  Nation.    Author  and  company  as  above.     Price,  60 

cents. 
■^22).     Folk  Songs  and  Other  Songs  for  Children.     J.  B.  R.  Whitehead. 
Oliver  Ditson  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  $2. 

24.  The   Lyric    Song    Book.      H.    W.    Loomis.      Clayton    F.    Summy 

Company.     Price,  65  cents. 

25.  Fifth  Reader,  New  Educational  Music  Course.     McLaughlin  and 

Gilchrist.     Ginn  &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  50  cents. 

26.  Sixth  Reader,  above  series.     Price,  50  cents. 

"^27.     Third    Book,    ^Modern    ]\Iusic    Series.      Eleanor    Smith.      Silver, 

Burdett  &  Company,  Chicago.     Price,  50  cents. 

SOME    FARM    LIFE    SONGS 

Note — Numbers  refer  to  the  books  listed  above  and  show  in  which 
book  or  books  each  song  may  be  found. 

For  lower  grades 

April,  16.  Let  Us  Alake  a  Garden,  7. 

Autumn  Fires,  i.  Little  Gipsy  Dandelion,  8. 

♦Bringing  the  Cattle  Home,  7.  My  Pony,  7. 

♦Boating,  6.  *Milking  Time,  6. 

Coasting,  13.  *Nature  Songs  (entire  section),  6. 

♦Flower  Songs  (entire  section),  6.  *Song  of  the  Loaf  of  Bread,  5. 

♦Goodbye  to  the  Farm  Song  of  the  Shearers,  5. 

(Stevenson),  13.  ♦Songs  of  the  Seasons   (entire 

Grasshopper  Green,  7,  14.  section),  5. 

♦In  the  Barn,  14.  The  Bird's  Nest,  5. 

♦In  the  Straw  Stack,  9.  ♦The  Dairy  Maids,  7. 


APPENDIX 


371 


*The  Farmer,  7. 

The  Farmer  in  the  Dell,  4,  7. 
*The  Meadow  is  a  Battle-field,  16. 

The  Rainbow,  5. 

The  Stepping-stones,  6. 

The  Swing,  6. 
*The  Swing  (Stevenson),  10,  13. 


The  Toad's  Mistake,  11. 

The  Wind  (Stevenson),  8,  13. 

The  Windmill,  5,  12. 

The  Woodpecker,  8. 

Thanksgiving  Song,  9. 

Thanksgiving,  13. 

Who  Has  Seen  the  Wind?  11. 


For  upper  grades 


All  Among  the  Barley,  i,  20. 

Autumn,  25. 
*Autumn  Strews  on  Every  Plain, 
16. 

City  Lad  and  Country  Lass,  19. 

Comin'  Through  the  Rye,  19. 
*Corn  Song,  i,  15. 
*Corn  Song,  16. 
*Farmer  and  Finch,  10. 

Farewell  to  the  Forest,  15,  22. 

Fawn-footed  Nannie,  3. 
*First  Violets,  15. 

Hail !    Bonny  September,  17. 
*Hail  to  the  Day  (Mendelssohn), 
26. 

Happy  Farmer  Boy,  i, 
*Hark!   Hark!   the  Lark,  15,  16. 

Harvest  Home,  i,  16. 

Harvest  Song,  17. 

Harvest  Song,  22. 

Home,  Sweet  Home,  22. 

*How    Cheerful   Along  the   Gay 
Mead,  16. 

How^  Do  You  Hoe  Your  Row?  i. 
*I  Know  a  Bank   (Shakespeare), 

15. 
Mill  i\Iay,  20. 
*My  Heart's  in  the  Highlands 
(Burns),  i,  15.  16.  17,  21. 
O  !  Hemlock  Tree,  16. 
Oh !  the  Ash  and  the  Oak,  18. 
Old  Kentucky  Home,  3,  19,  21,  22. 


*0n  Horseback   (Rubinstein),  25. 

On  a  Nameless  Hill-top,  26. 

Polish  ]\Iay  Song,  i,  22. 

September,  18. 
*Skating  Song  (Schumann),  3,  15. 
*Song  After  Labor,  16,  21. 

Song  of  the  Brook  (Tennyson),  i. 
*Spring  Song  (Mendelssohn),  16. 

The  Apple  Orchard,  19. 

The  Berry  Pickers,  26. 

The  Blushing  Maple  Tree,  15,  20. 
*The  Farmer,  20. 
*The  First  Grass  (Schumann),  16. 
*The  Happy  Farmer  (Schumann), 
16. 

The  Haymaker's  Song,  17. 

The  Haymaker's  Roundelay,  26. 
*The  Hay  Ride,  26. 

The  Harvester,  17. 

The  Linden  Tree,  i. 
*The  Low-backed  Car,  15,  19,  21. 
*The  Old  Oaken  Bucket,  22. 
*The  Painful  Plow,  17. 
'^The  Plowman,  26. 
*The  River  Farm,  26. 

The  River  (Beethoven),  25. 

The  Wild  Rosebud,  15. 
*The  Violet,  3. 
*Up  the  Hills,  3.  i5- 
*Wait  for  the  Wagon,  15. 

'Way  Down  Upon  the  Suwanee 
River,  16,  21,  22. 


X72        COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

XI 

A    MINIMUM    LIST    OF    MANUAL    TRAINING    TOOLS    FOR 

COUNTRY   SCHOOLS 

SOME    PRINCIPLES    RELATING    TO    MANUAL    TRAINING    IN 

COUNTRY    SCHOOLS 

1.  Introduce  the  subject  gradually.     Mend  and  make  school  furniture, 

basket-ball  standards,  walks,  etc.  This  may  not  be  satisfactory 
pedagogically,  but  it  is  the  best  method  of  approach  in  country 
schools,  where  a  favorable  attitude  must  often  first  be  established 
among  the  people. 

2.  Make  things  that  are  needed  and  of  practical  value  either  in  school 

or  at  home.  Cling  to  pedagogical  principle  as  the  determinant 
of  the  course'  and  do  not  allow  material  needs  to  displace  this 
criterion,  but  at  the  same  time  select  practical  problems  as 
illustrations  of  this  educational  unfolding. 

3.  Remember  that  manual  training  has  been  defined  as  "hands  follow- 

ing thought,"  and  make  sure  that  there  is  some  thought  about 
it  to  follow, 

4.  Concentrate   attention   upon   the   children   and    their   development; 

remember  that  the  teacher's  task  is  educating  boys  and  girls,  not 
planning  a  display  of  bric-a-brac. 

5.  Four  elements  of  study  at  least  should  be  considered  in  working 

out  a  problem  in  woodwork. 

a.  Materials :    source,  story,  value,  variety,  seasoning,  etc. 

b.  Tools :    care,  handling,  etc. 

c.  Execution :    way  of  handling  tools  and  performing  the  physical 

task.     Correct  habits  must  be  formed  here. 

d.  Relation  to  life :    social  and  industrial  studies,  labor  organization 

and  competition,  manufacturing  processes,  etc. 

6.  Strive  to  avoid  the  pedagogical  errors  common  in  manual  trainisg. 

Among  these  are: 

a.  Neglect  of  the  thought  side. 

b.  Lack  of  motive  or  purpose  in  the  work.     This  is  seen  in  asking 

the  children  to  make  pieces  undesirable  or  useless  from  their 
own  point  of  vie^v. 

c.  Neglect  of  the  social  and  industrial  side  of  the  subject. 

d.  Over-stress  on  skill  and  excellence. 

The    following   list    of   tools    was    prepared    by    Mr.    L.    H.    Burch, 
formerly   teacher    of   manual   training   in    the    Western    Illinois    State 


APPENDIX  373 

Normal  School,  Macomb.  Many  country  teachers  have  testified  to 
its  practicability.  The  prices  listed  are  averages  for  the  standard  tools 
that  can  be  purchased  of  local  dealers  anywhere.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  one  or  two  benches  for  this  outfit  shall  be  made  by  the  larger  boys. 

I  rip  saw  (26  in.  long) $1.60       i  Stanley  brace $1.50 

I  cross-cut  saw   (10  points).    1.75       i  screwdriver 25 

I  back  saw    1.50       i  square i.oo 

I  coping  saw 25       2  hammers 1.20 

I  low  angle  block  plane i.oo       i  oil  can 10 

I  jack  plane 1.85       i  oil  stone 50 

I  T    square 30       i  set  Dowel  bits i.oo 

I  marking  gage 10  


I  quarter-inch  chisel 30  $14.60 

I  inch  chisel 40 

XII 

A  MINIMUM  EQUIPMENT  FOR  THE  TEACHING  OF  DOMES- 
TIC   SCIENCE    IN    COUNTRY    SCHOOLS 

The  following  list  of  domestic  science  equipment  for  country  schools 
is  recommended  by  Mrs.  Elma  P.  Foulk,  Director  of  Household 
Extension  in  the  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  and  is  published 
here  through  her  kindness.  The  inexpensiveness  and  practicability  of 
this  list  should  commend  it  to  all  country  teachers.  A  better  list, 
costing  ten  dollars,  may  also  be  obtained  from  Mrs.  Foulk. 

The  stand  for  the  stove  in  this  equipment  is  to  be  home-made.  Oil 
was  decided  upon  as  fuel  because  it  is  always  obtainable.  (For  alcohol 
stoves,  see  this  appendix.  Section  4.)  It  is  better  to  put  the  greater 
part  of  the  money  to  be  expended  into  a  stove  and  buy  the  utensils  as 
needed.  Many  of  the  granite  articles  may  be  purchased  at  a  ten-cent 
store.  The  large  granite  kettle  and  the  smaller  granite  kettle  with  a 
lid  should  be  selected  so  that  they  may  be  used  as  a  double  boiler. 

EQUIPMENT  COSTING  APPROXIMATELY  $5-00 

I  stove   $3-00  I  Dover  tgg  beater $0.05 

1  measuring  glass 10  i  wire  egg  beater. 03 

2  tablespoons    10  i  salt  and  i  pepper 05 

3  teaspoons   10  i  asbestos  mat 10 

I  steel  knife 05  i  granite  frying  pan  (large)  .     .10 

I  steel  fork 05  i  granite  frying  pan  (small).     .10 

I  paring  knife 10  i  granite  kettle  (large) 10 


374 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


V 


I  granite  kettle   (small) $o.io  i  granite  milk  pan $0.10 

I  lid  for  smaller  granite  i  wire  strainer 05 

kettle 05  I  granite  teakettle. 50 

1  bowl  for  mixing 10  

2  granite  pie  pans  at  loc 20  $4-93 


XIII 

A    SELECTED   LIST    OF    TWENTY-FIVE   BOOKS    FOR    THE 
USE  OF  COUNTRY  TEACHERS 

The  following  list  of  books  is  the  result  of  several  years  of  practical 
experience  in  country  school  teaching  and  in  the  training  of  country 
teachers.  Each  book  has  been  carefully  tested  and  passed  upon  by 
many  country  teachers.  It  has  been  the  purpose  in  making  this  selec- 
tion to  keep  it  as  inclusive  and  helpful  and  yet  as  inexpensive  as 
possible.  But  one  book  in  each  field  or  subject  is  given.  The  list  thus 
represents  a  minimum  equipment  of  professional  aid  for  country 
teachers.  All  books  named  for  which  no  publishing  house  is  given 
may  be  secured  of  A.  C.  ]\IcClurg  &  Company,  Chicago,  at  the  prices 
quoted.    The  entire  list  can  be  purchased  for  less  than  $30. 

1.  Report  of  the  Country  Life  Commission.     See  pages  69  and 

313,  and  Bibliography,  page  389. 

2.  Butterfield,  K.  L.    Chapters  in  Rural  Progress.     See  Bibliog- 

raphy, page  388. 

3.  Bailey,  L.  H.    The  Training  of  Farmers.     See  Bibliography, 

page  388. 

4.  Bailey,  L.  H.   The  Country  Life  Movement.   See  Bibliography, 

page  388. 

5.  Kern,    O.   J.     Among   Country   Schools.      See    Bibliography, 

page  389  and  page  296. 

6.  Thorndike,  Edward  L.     Principles  of  Teaching.     Price,  $1.25. 

Excellent  presentation  of  the  common-sense  essentials  of 
good  pedagogy.  This  one  book  fully  lived  up  to  would 
insure  good  teaching. 

7.  Wray,   Angelina.     Jean   Mitchell's    School.      Price,   $1.     This 

book  in  the  attractive  guise  of  a  story  presents  an  ideal  of 
country  teaching  that  every  country  teacher  should  possess. 

8.  Briggs  and  Coffman.     Reading  in  the  Public  Schools.     Price, 

$1.25.     Best  book  on  the  subject  for  country  teachers. 


cr- 


APPENDIX  37^ 

'    9.     Kemp,  Elwood  W.    History  for  Graded  and  District  Schools, 

Price,  $1.  Covers  the  work  in  history  throughout  the 
grades  more  adequately  than  any  other. 

10.  Dodge,  Richard  E.     The  Teaching  of  Geography  in  Elemen- 

tary   Schools.      (Forthcoming.)      Rand,    McNally    Company, 
Chicago.     Contains  the  best  discussion  of  rural  school  geo 
raphy  in  its  relation  to  farm  living  yet  in  print. 

11.  Field,  Jessie.     The  Corn  Lady.     A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chi- 

cago. Price,  60  cents.  The  story  of  a  country  teacher. 
Contains  excellent  set  of  farm  arithmetic  problems, 

12.  Comstock,  Mrs.  A.  B.    Handbook  of  Nature  Study.     Price.  $3. 

Comstock  Publishing  Company,  Ithaca,  ^ew  York.  An 
excellent  source  of  information  for  nature  study.  Profusely 
illustrated. 

13.  Keeler,  Harriet  Louise.     Our  Native  Trees.     Price  $2.     Easily 

handled  and  helpful  key  to  the  study  of  forest  trees  in  the 
Middle  West. 

14.  Blanchan,  Neltje.     Bird  Neighbors.     Price,  $2.     Best  help  for 

beginners  in  bird  study.  Contains  classification  based  on 
color  and  large  life-like  pictures. 

15.  Mann,    A.    R.     Beginnings    in    Agriculture.     Price.    75    cents. 

Excellent  reference  for  both  teacher  and  pupils.  Its  em- 
phasis upon  the  social  side  of  country  life  is  especially 
desirable. 

16.  Weed,  Clarence.     Farmers'  Friends  and  Foes.     D.  C.  Heath  & 

Company.     $1.25.     Especially  good  on  v^eeds  and  insects. 

17.  Seegmiller,  Wilhelmina.     Applied  Arts  Drawing  Books.     Of 

great  help  to  inexperienced  teachers.     See  page  355. 

18.  Worst  and   Keith.     Educative    Seatv^^ork.     Educational   Pub- 

lishing Company,  Chicago.  85  cents.  Especially  valuable 
because  it  shows  the  relation  of  seat  v/ork  to  other  subjects. 

19.  McMurry,   Mrs.    Lida    B.      Classic    Stories    for    Little    Ones. 

Price,  40  cents.  Good  beginning  for  primary  story  telling. 
Secure  the  teacher's  edition  with  pedagogical  supplement. 

20.  McMurry,   Mrs.    Lida   B.     Songs   of   Treetop   and    Meadow. 

Price,  40  cents.  Beautiful  collection  of  child  poetry,  con- 
taining poems  to  teach  in  primar}^  grades. 

21.  Stevenson,  Robert  Louis.    A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses.    Price, 

from  30  cents  up.  No  teacher  of  little  children  can  afford 
to  be  without  these  charming  child  rhymes. 

22.  Hofer,  Mari  R.     Singing  Games  for  Children.     A,   Flanagan 


376   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Company,  Chicago.  Price,  30  cents.  Has  easy  musical 
accompaniments.     Helpful  for  indoor  games. 

23.  Bancroft's   Games   for   the   Playground,    Home,   School,   and 

Gymnasium.  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York.  Price, 
$1.75.    An  excellent  collection,  including  all  kinds  of  games. 

24.  The  Abridged  Academy  Song  Book.     Published  by   Ginn   & 

Company,  Chicago.  Price,  75  cents.  Contains  a  splendid 
collection  of  good  songs  for  the  upper  grades  of  country 
schools. 

25.  Riley  and  Gaynor.     Songs  of  the  Child  World.     Book  I  and 

Book  II.  Price,  $1  each.  Published  by  the  John  Church 
Company,  Chicago.  Two  of  the  best  collections  of  primary 
songs. 

XIV 

SUGGESTED  PROBLEMS  OF  COUNTRY  SCHOOL  TEACHING 
FOR  THE  ATTACK  OF  INDIVIDUAL  COUNTRY 

TEACHERS 

Nothing  will  improve  any  teacher  so  rapidly  as  constructive  thinking. 
With  this  thought  in  mind,  leaders  of  the  Country  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation of  Illinois  in  1907  put  out  a  bulletin  outlining  and  suggesting  a 
list  of  problems  for  country  teachers.  The  solution  of  such  problems 
is  still  a  feature  of  the  work  of  the  Country  Teachers'  Association 
of  Illinois,  and  the  results  of  this  work,  as  taken  up  by  various  country 
teachers  of  the  state,  become  the  basis  of  the  Country  School  Exhibit 
made  each  year  at  the  time  of  the  annual  Country  School  Conference 
of  the  Association.  This  list  of  problems  was  prepared  by,  and  should 
be  credited  wholly,  to  Dr.  Frederick  G.  Bonser,  formerly  of  the  Western 
Illinois  State  Normal  School  at  Macomb, 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT 

An  account,  with  photographs  or  drawings,  of  improvements  you 
have  made  in : 

1.  Your  heating  plans.    If  a  stove,  make  a  clay  model  of  it. 

2.  Lighting  plans,  shades,  and  curtains. 

3.  Decoration    of    walls — blackboards,    wall    paper,    pictures,    bulletin 

boards,  etc. 

4.  Seating — desks,  chairs,   window    seats,   settees,   kindergarten   tables 

and  chairs,  etc. 

5.  Painting  of  building,  inside  and  outside,  floors,  etc. 


APPENDIX  377 

6.  Apparatus— stands,  book  cases,  tables,  cupboards,  aquarium,  animal 

cage,  etc. 

7.  Outside   conditions— walks,    well,    outbuildings,    yard    arrangement, 

flowers,  gardens,  paths,  etc. 

Work  out  and  construct  plans  and  models  for  an  ideal  district  school 
and  outbuildings  with  adequate  room  for  all  purposes,  and  proper 
heating,  ventilating,  and  lighting  provisions. 

Construct  and  develop  a  landscape  plan  for  a  typical  country  school 
yard,  embodying  all  desired  elements,  both  utilitarian  and  aesthetic. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  SOCIAL  ENVIROXMEXT 

Visit  patrons.  Record  your  visits,  giving  dates,  the  principal  points 
discussed,  the  impressions  you  received,  the  conditions  learned;  note 
whether  the  school  work  is  reaching  into  the  life  of  the  home,  whether 
home  needs  are  being  met  by  the  school.  Visits  to  patrons  offer  excellent 
opportunity  to  discuss  new  lines  of  thought;  as,  agriculture,  school 
equipment,  consolidation  of  schools,  etc. 

Parents'  meetings.  ^Meetings  for  the  discussion  of  specific  school 
questions ;  as,  attendance,  home  work,  discipline,  moral  habits  of  the 
children,  how  parents  may  help  the  school  most,  reading  for  children, 
etc.  Plan  and  hold  such  meetings  and  develop  a  list  of  topics  and 
problems  growing  out  of  your  experience  which  may  help  others. 

Evening  meetings.  For  entertainment  and  instruction — literary, 
musical,  debates,  contests,  etc.  For  getting  money — basket  socials,  pay 
entertainments,  sales,  etc.  Inspirational  meetings — talks,  lectures, 
addresses,  by  teachers,  ministers,  professional  men,  and  others,  on 
general  and  country  life  subjects. 

CONSOLIDATION  OF  SCHOOLS 

If  conditions  seem  at  all  favorable  in  your  territory  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  consolidated  school,  set  out  to  secure  such  a  movement. 
Secure,  from  the  township  assessor,  the  amount  of  taxable  property 
in  each  school  district  concerned.  Make  a  map  showing  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  children  in  the  territory  proposed  for  consolidation.  Show 
the  possible  routes  of  transportation.  Find  the  cost  per  capita  in  each 
of  the  schools  concerned.  Secure  an  approximate  statement  of  the 
cost  of  a  consolidated  school  plant  and  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  it 
for  one  year.  Show  the  benefits  gained  by  consolidation.  Make  a 
plan  and  model  of  a  good  consolidated  school  building  and  grounds 
which  will  aid  in  enforcing  the  advantages  of  consolidation.  In  educat- 
ing the  community  to  an  appreciation  of  the  meaning  and  values  of 
consolidation,  use  every  available  opportunity— personal  calls  and  con- 


378    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

versations,  the  influence  you  can  exert  through  the  children,  a  wise 
distribution  of  the  Hterature  on  the  subject,  as  the  bulletins  you  can 
get  from  the  State  University  at  Urbana,  lectures,  discussions,  and 
evening  meetings  to  talk  over  the  subject  with  reference  to  definite 
steps  after  3'our  people  are  prepared  for  these.  Consult  and  learn 
thoroughly  those  parts  of  the  school  law  relative  to  consolidation.  Find 
out  all  you  can  about  the  John  Swaney  consolidated  school  in  Putnam 
County  and  about  other  such  schools  in  the  United  States. 

COUNTRY    SCHOOL    ORGANIZATION    AND    MANAGEMENT 

A  country  school  program,  daily  and  weekly,  with  reasons  for  the 
plan  you  advocate. 

Opening  exercises  in  country  schools — suggested  and  tried  material 
that  will  hold  the  interest  and  attention  of  all  grades  and  be  of  real 
value  to  them. 

Schoolroom  sanitation  and  cleanliness — how  to  manage  the  janitor 
work  to  best  advantage. 

Practical  and  psychological  seatwork  for  the  first  four  grades  in 
country  schools ;   work  worth  while  and  well  adapted  to  the  pupils. 

The  noon  hour  and  recess  periods — how  to  use  this  time  to  the 
greatest  advantage  and  enjoyment. 

Indoor  and  outdoor  games  for  country  schools. 

PROBLEMS  IN  THE  SEVERAL  SUBJECTS   OF  STUDY 

Arithmetic 

100  problems  on  the  corn  industry:  Acreage  in  your  district;  cost 
of  planting,  tending,  and  harvesting;  cost  of  various  methods  of 
harvesting,  as  binding,  shredding,  etc. ;  yields ;  values  of  fertilizers 
used,  in  cost  and  in  returns;  marketing,  shelling,  and  hauling;  shrink- 
age; corn  products — meals,  starch,  glucose,  distillery  and  brewery 
products,  breakfast  foods,  oils,  etc. ;  feeding  corn  to  stock — which 
pays  better,  selling  corn  or  feeding  it  to  stock?  Gain  or  loss  in 
cutting  corn.  Send  for  bulletins  to  the  Agricultural  College  at  the 
University  of  Illinois,  Urbana.  Use  actual  conditions  in  3'our  own 
district  as  a  basis  for  these  problems.  These  will  all  suggest  many 
others  which  will  make  your  arithmetic  real  and  vital, 

100  problems  in  oats,  wheat,  and  hay,  as  suggested  for  corn. 

100  problems  in  stock  raising — cattle,  hogs,  horses,  sheep,  poultry, 
etc.  Are  farmers  actually  making  any  money  on  their  stock?  Use 
actual  cases,  getting  facts  as  they  are  in  your   district   from   one   or 


APPENDIX  37g 

more  farmers.    Which  pays  better,  seUing  steers  at  two  years  or  three? 
100  problems  in  dairying.     Cost  and  return  of  individual  milk  cows. 
How  many  cows  in  the  district  really  pay?     Does  it  pay,  financially,  to 
use  a  separator? 

100  problems  in  fruit  growing.  Tree  fruits — apples,  pears,  peaches, 
etc.-;  does  it  pay  the  farmer  to  raise  these  fruits  for  market?  Brush 
fruits — berries,  currants,  grapes,  etc. 

50  problems  in  drainage.  Cost  and  value  of  open  ditches;  of  tiling; 
gains  by  draining;  studies  in  soil  moisture,  rainfall,  needs  of  various 
crops,  etc.  An  excellent  little  book  for  much  of  this  farm  work  is 
Elementary  Agriculture,  by  Hatch  and  Haselwood,  published  by  Row, 
Peterson  &  Company,  Chicago,  50  cents. 

50  problems  in  fencing  on  farms.  Studies  in  comparative  costs, 
durability,  and  efficiency  of  various  kinds  of  posts  and  fencing. 

50  problems  in  fertilizers  for  soils.  Values  of  barnyard  manure, 
cornstalks,  straw,  and  stubble.  Artificial  fertilizers — costs  and  returns 
from  using.    Make  experiments  in  your  school  garden. 

50  problems  in  farm  machinery.  Relative  economy  in  cheap  machin- 
ery; does  it  pay  to  own  a  self-binder  or  to  hire  one?  Does  it  pay  to 
own  a  corn  binder,  a  manure  spreader,  a  hay  derrick?  Relative 
economy  in  a  wide-cut  mowing  machine,  two-row  cultivator,  gang 
plow,  etc.,  in  comparison  with  smaller  implements.  Losses  in  machinery- 
through  want  of  care. 

50  problems  on  farm  buildings.  Dimensions,  cost  of  materials,  car- 
penter work,  etc. 

50  problems  on  the  economic  values  of  birds  and  helpful  insects; 
economic  losses  through  harmful  insects,  fungi,  weeds,  etc.  Get  bulle- 
tins from  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  sent  free 
on  request 

50  problems  on  farm  incomes  and  expenditures.  What  interest  do 
farms  actually  pay? 

50  problems  on  the  cost  of  food  on  the  farm.  The  market  value  of 
foods  grown  and  eaten  on  the  farm.  Use  individual  families  as  a  basis. 
Figure  cost  of  actual  menus  for  country  meals  at  market  prices  of  foods. 

50  problems  in  the  actual  sales  and  expenditures  of  one  or  more 
families  for  one  month,  or  three  months,  or  one  year. 

History 

History  of  the  school  district  for  the  last  fifty  years. 

History  of  one  family  in  the  school  district  through  five  generations. 

Stories  and  traditions  of  the  early  settlement  of  the  district. 


38o   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

Original  stories  of  American  history  by  persons  living  in  the  dis- 
trict— soldiers  of  the  Civil  War,   Spanish-American  War,  and  others. 

History  of  the  school  since  its  founding — its  buildings,  directors, 
teachers,  pupils,  significant  events,  etc. 

History  of  one  farm  in  the  district  since  it  was  originally  filed  upon 
as  a  homestead  or  bought  from  the  government,  including  an  examina- 
tion of  deeds,  abstracts  of  title,  mortgages,  etc. 

History  of  land  sales  and  values  since  the  district  was  all  pubhc  land. 

The  place  of  your  county  in  the  Civil  War. 

The  part  your  county  served  in  the  early  history  of  Illinois. 

The  history  of  your  township  since  the  first  settlement  in  it. 

The  biography,  with  its  historical  relationships,  of  any  prominent  or 
significant  individuals  of  old  age  in  the  district. 

Geography 

The  topography  of  the  school  district — color  maps,  relief  maps,  con- 
tour maps,  all  drawn  to  scale. 

Studies  in  the  drainage  of  the  school  district,  and  of  the  township. 

The  geography  of  one  square  mile,  or  of  one  quarter  section,  in  the 
school  district — topography,  drainage,  forests,  kinds  and  qualities  of 
soils,  physical  formations,  physiographic  history,  etc. 

The  industrial  geography  of  the  school  district  for  one  year.  Amounts 
and  prices  of  products,  yields,  cost  of  labor,  cost  of  purchases,  living 
expenses,  values  of  lands,  transportation  facilities,  profits  and  losses, 
relative  values  of  dift'erent  farm  crops  and  products,  etc. 

Commerce  involved  in  the  need  of  one  family  in  the  district  for 
one  year. 

Geographical  distribution  of  the  products  exported  from  the  district 
for  one  year. 

Geographical  sources  of  the  imports  to  the  district  for  one  year. 

Geographical  influences  in  the  making  of  roads  and  in  the  boundaries 
of  farms  in  the  district. 

Geographical  sources  of  the  population  of  the  district  reaching  back 
as  far  as  the  grandparents  of  the  present  population. 

Industrial  geography  of  the  numerous  industries  involved  in  equip- 
ping the  farm — fencing,  vehicles,  machinery,  harness,  pumps,  furniture, 
household  hardware,  cutlery,  kitchen  equipment,  stoves  and  furnaces, 
carpets,  draperies,  lighting  systems,  etc. 

•  Industrial  geography  of  the  exports  from  the  farm — leather,  wool, 
grain  products,  meat,  and  other  live  stock  products,  etc. 

A  study  of  the  markets  of  the  district — immediate  and  remote. 


APPENDIX  ^gj 

Products  map  of  the  school  district.  A  products  map  for  each  of  the 
last  five  years  of  one  section  of  the  school  district,  showing  the  rotation 
of  crops  followed.  Make  this  the  basis  of  some  studies  in  crop  rotation, 
soil  fertility,  etc. 

Soil  maps  of  the  district  based  on  examination  of  soils  and  on  crops. 

Meteorolog\'  of  the  school  district  through  several  months,  makine 
careful  daily  observations  and  showing  results  in  charts  and  maps. 
In  this  connection,  study  the  weather  maps  and  the  principles  of 
meteorology  underlying  the  methods  of  weather  forecasting. 

Physiographic  studies  in  the  school  district— weathering,  erosion, 
hills,  valleys,  glacial  effects,  stones,  etc. 

Changes  in  the  school  district  through  the  last  50  years  as  to  forests, 
drainage,  lakes  or  ponds,  swamps,  redemption  of  waste  lands,  etc. 
Represent  the  results  of  such  studies  by  a  series  of  maps,  one  for  each 
five  years,  two  years,  or  one  year,  as  need  indicates. 

Nature  Study 

Plan  and  develop  a  school  garden,  giving  special  attention  to  design. 
Study  injurious  insects,  weeds,  etc.,  in  relation  to  the  garden  work. 
Also  beneficial  animal  forms — the  toad,  earthworm,  bees,  birds,  etc. 

Study  the  habits  of  birds — their  migration,  nesting  habits,  foods,  etc. 
Make  charts  showing  each. 

Study  trees  and  make  a  collection  of  all  the  different  woods  grown 
in  the  district,  writing  up  their  qualities  and  values,  both  economic  and 
aesthetic. 

Work  out  studies  of  the  homes,  habits,  and  life  stories  of  the  various 
vertebrate  wild  animals  in  the  school  district,  with  references,  where 
important,  to  their  economic  bearings. 

How  many  kinds,  or  varieties,  are  found  in  your  district  of  each  of 
the  following  fruits:  Apples,  peaches,  pears,  plums,  berries,  grapes? 
Work  out  discussions  of  the  numerous  varieties  in  each  case  with 
reference  to  their  respective  values  in  your  locality. 

Make  a  study  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  pumps  and  other  ways  of 
drawing  water  from  wells.  Make  drawings  of  these  pumps  and  state- 
ments of  the  principles  involved  in  the  common  lifting  pump  and  other 
varieties  found. 

Make  similar  studies  in  type  pieces  of  farm  machinery — plows,  corn 
planters,  cultivators,  wheat  drills,  seeders,  mowers,  binders,  disc  har- 
rows, hay  rakes,  etc.,  using  every  kind  in  the  district  in  each  case. 
Which  is  the  best,  and  why?  What  are  the  principles  involved  in  the 
structure  of  each,  in  so  far  as  children  can  appreciate  these? 


382        COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

English 

Compositions  on  country  and  farm  life — Make  and  try  lists  of  theme 
subjects,  as:  Getting  up  early  in  the  morning;  Why  it  pays  to  keep 
the  weeds  mowed  along  the  roads ;  etc.  Develop  special  types  of 
composition,  namely : 

Description — Of  buildings,  stock,  trees,  fruits,  machines,  pumps,  and 
windmills,  fields,  landscapes,  etc. 

Narration — Farm  activities — plowing,  planting,  cultivating,  harvesting, 
threshing,  constructing  fences,  repairs,  etc. 

Exposition — Changes  in  farm  life  through  the  use  of  the  telephone 
and  free  mail  delivery ;  present-day  land  values  and  their  growth ; 
Why  farmers  in  Illinois  devote  so  much  of  their  land  to  corn 
growing;  etc. 

Argumentation — Advantages  of  country  life ;  relative  values  of  dif- 
ferent breeds  of  horses,  cows,  hogs,  poultry,  fruits,  etc. ;  relative  values 
of  different  methods  of  farming,  as  surface  cultivation  of  corn,  deep 
cultivation,  etc.  Resolved,  That  it  pays  to  burn  cornstalks ;  Resolved, 
That  spraying  fruit  trees  is  a  waste  of  time ;  etc. 

Poetry — Original  poems — simple  scenes,  activities,  and  impressions  of 
country  life  through  the  year.  Surprising  results  may  be  gotten  from 
the  second  grade  upward  if  you  help  the  spontaneous  nature  of  the 
children. 

Reading — Reading  lessons  for  the  first  grade  based  upon  actual, 
living  interests  of  country  life ;  as,  lessons  on  pets,  on  the  toad,  frog, 
butterflies,  spiders,  birds,  farm  activities,  the  barnyard  people,  the 
meadow  people,  etc. 

Literature — Lists  of  appropriate  selections,  prose  and  poetry,  for 
various  farm  activities,  occasions,  plants,  animals,  etc. ;  as,  selections 
about  corn,  about  fruits,  about  planting,  about  the  harvest,  etc. 

Art  Studies — Drawing,  Modeling,  and  Designing 

Drawings  and  paintings  of  typical  scenes  and  objects  about  the 
school  house  and  district  through  the  different  seasons  of  the  year; 
the  same  scenes,  trees,  etc.,  in  summer  and  in  winter ;  fruit  trees 
with  blooms,  with  green  fruits,  with  ripe  fruits ;  pictures  of  stock, 
plants,  farm  machinery,  vehicles,  landscapes ;  bits  of  streams  and 
borders  of  streams,  roads,  and  woodlands. 

Models  in  clay  of  fruits,  stock,  figures  from  stories,  common  objects, 
pottery,  etc. 

Designs — In  pencil,  and  in  pen  and  ink,  of  plans  for  manual  training 
work,    for    decoration    of    pieces    of    handwork,    book    covers,    cards, 


APPENDIX 


383 


pillows,  etc.  Try  figures  made  of  shelled  corn,  wheat,  timothy,  clover, 
acorns,  nuts,  leaves,  etc. 

Develop  a  country  school  magazine  for  each  pupil  through  the  year. 
Make  cover  designs  from  local  material,  letting  each  pupil  work  out  an 
original  design,  using  motives  from  scenery,  histor}',  etc.  Put  in  the 
magazines  the  best  drawings,  compositions,  geography,  history,  and 
arithmetic  work,  etc.  IMake  one  or  more  class  or  school  magazines 
in  which  are  placed  pieces  of  work  of  especial  excellence. 

Have  made  a  model  of  your  school  house,  in  clay,  wood,  cardboard, 
or  other  material,  to  show  the  defects  or  advantages  of  your  building. 

Make  a  study  of  the  world's  best  pictures  by  finding  out  which  appeal 
most  strongly  to  country  children  of  various  ages,  thus  developing  a 
graded  list  of  pictures  especially  appropriate  for  study  in  country 
schools.  Try,  also,  biographical  stories  of  the  various  artists  whose 
pictures  are  used,  to  find  appropriate  ones  for  schools. 

Music 

Have  the  children  make  original  melodies  for  some  of  the  simple 
phrases  and  poems  which  refer  to  seasons,  nature,  country  life,  etc. 
Have  them  also  write  short  poems  for  times  and  occasions,  as  for 
Thanksgiving  Day,  Christmas,  Arbor  Day,  Bird  Day,  etc.,  setting 
some  of  these  to  original  melodies  of  their  own.  You  will  be  sur- 
prised to  find  how  well  children  will  furnish  suitable  melodies  for 
simple  verses. 

Select,  by  trying  them  with  the  children,  a  good  list  of  the  best  songs 
for  country  children.  Make  a  list  of  songs,  music,  and  musicians,  on 
the  basis  of  trials,  especially  appealing  to  children  through  country  life 
experience. 

Work  out  a  good  one-year  course  in  music  for  a  one-room  country 
school.  Add  to  this  if  possible,  a  second  year  of  work  to  be  given  in 
alternation  with  the  first  year's  work. 


DIRECTORY   OF    RURAL   PROGRESS 


LISTING    SIXTY-FIVE    MOVEMENTS    DEVOTED    TO 
UPBUILDING    OF   AAIERICAN    FARM    LIFE 


THE 


One  of  the  greatest  handicaps  confronting  those  engaged  in  country 
life  work  is  the  difficulty  of  procuring  accurate  information  concerning 
developments  of  recent  progress.  To  facilitate  this  end,  the  following 
directory  is  inserted  here.  Special  precaution  has  been  exercised  to 
make  the  sources  of  this  directory  as  permanent  as  possible,  and  even 
where  the  personnel  of  officers  may  change,  office  addresses  will  be 
found  reliable.  Readers  who  need  information  from  sources  not  tabu- 
lated here  should  consult  the  Service  Bureau  of  the  International 
Harvester  Company  of  America,  in  the  Harvester  Building,  at  Michi- 
gan Avenue  and  Harrison  Street,  Chicago,  which  is  at  present  one  of 
the  best  clearing-houses  for  rural  information  in  the  United  States. 
The  page  references  given  in  column  two  refer  to  pages  of  this  book 
where  further  information  concerning  particular  movements  may  be 
found. 

I.     GENERAL  COUNTRY    LIFE   MOVEMENTS 


Movement 

National     Commission 
Country  Life. 


on 


International   Institute   of 
Agriculture. 

National   Grange — Patrons 
of  Husbandry. 

National  Corn  Association. 


National  Conservation  As- 
sociation. 

International     Dry    Farm- 
ing Congress. 


Farmers' 
gress. 


National     Con- 


Farmers*  Union. 


National  Apple  Show. 


New    England    Conference 
on  Rural  Progress. 


Purpose   and   Explanation 

To    investigate    present    farm 
life   conditions.      (Pages   G9 
and  313.) 

A  world  order  to  promote  agri- 
cultural interests  of  tbe  na- 
tions.     (Page  312.) 

To   advance   the   general   wel- 
fare  of  farmers. 
(Chapter   IV.) 

Now  a  general  national  conn 

try   life   association. 

(Page  310.) 
Promulgation    of    the    conser- 

vatiop  of  resources. 

To   disseminate   knowledge   of 
dry  farming  methods. 
(Page  310.) 

To  consider  national  questions 
related  to  agriculture. 

To  promote   business    coopera- 
tion among  farmers. 
(Page  306.) 

Orohardist's  conference  held 
annually  at  Spokane,  Wash. 

To  further  the  welfare  of  New 
England  rural  life. 
(Page  309.) 

384 


Sources   of  Information 

Focument  No.  70.5  Govern- 
nu  nt  Printing  Office, 
Washington,   D.   C. 

Mr.  David  Lubin,  Sacra- 
mento, Cal. 

National  Master,  Oliver 
Wilson,   Peoria,  Illinois. 

President.  Eugene  D. 
Funk,    Shirley,    Illinois. 

Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

President  Dr.  J.  H.  Worst, 
College  of  Agriculture, 
Fargo,  N.  D. 

Secretary  George  M.  Whit- 
aker,  1404  Harvard  St., 
Washington,   D.   C. 

President  Charles  A.  Bar- 
rett, Atlanta,  Ga. 

Headquarters  of  the  Na- 
tional Apple  Show,  Spo- 
kane, Wash. 

Pres.  K.  L.  Bui  terfield. 
College  of  Agriculture, 
Amherst,  Mass. 


DIRECTORY  OF  RURAL  PROGRESS 


385 


Movement 

"The  Amherst  Move- 
ment." 

Southwest  Interstate  As- 
sociation for  Country 
Life. 

National  Soil  Fertility 
League. 

Illinois  Federation  for 
Country    Life    Progress. 

Rhode  Island  League  for 
Rural  Progress. 

Rural  Life  Conference  of 
the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia. 

Washington  Country  Life 
Commission. 

Hesperia  Movement. 


Purpose   and   Explanation 
Summer    school    of   the   Mass. 

State  College  of  Agriculture. 

(Pages  53  and  304.  t 
To  advance  country  life  in  the 

Southwest. 

Organization  of  eminent  men 
devoted  to  soil  improvement. 

State  federation  of  rural  social 
forces  holding  annual  con- 
ferences.     (Page  318.) 

Similar  to  above.     (Page  318.) 

To     initiate     rural     progress 
throughout  the  South. 
(Page  308.) 

A  state  organization  similar 
to  the  National  Commission. 

A  mature  local  movement  for 
the  upbuilding  of  a  rural 
community. 


Sources    of   Information 

Director  William  D.  Hind, 
College  of  Agriculture, 
Amherst,  Mass. 

Pres.  E.  D.  Cameron, 
State  Supt.  of  Okla- 
homa, Oklahoma  City. 

Secretary  H.  H.  Gross, 
1328  First  National 
Bank    Bldg.,    Chicago. 

Secretary  Mabel  Carney, 
Normal,   111. 

Rhode  Island  State  Col- 
lege,  Kingston,    R.    I. 

University        of        Va., 
Charlottesville,  Va. 

Chairman,  David  Brown, 
Spokane,    Wash. 

Mr.  David  L.  Brooks, 
Fremont,   Mich. 


II.     HOME   IMPROVEMENT    MOVEMENTS 


American    Home    Econom- 
ics Association. 


Bureau  of  Information 
and  Circulating  Library 
on   Home   Questions. 

The  Illinois  Association  of 
Household  Science. 

The  Illinois  Congress  of 
Mothers. 


"To  improve  the  conditions 
of  living  in  the  home,  the 
institutional  household,  and 
the   community." 

Conducts  correspondence  work 
and  will  answer  questions 
for   those   enrolled. 

Organization  of  the  state 
farmers'  institute  for  home 
science. 

State  organization  for  home 
improvement  and  child  cul- 
ture. 


Pres.  Prof.  Isabel  Bevier, 
University  of  Illinois, 
Urbana. 

American  School  of  Home 
Economics,  606  West 
69th  Street,  Chicago. 

Pres.  Mrs.  H.  M.  Dunlap, 
Savoy,  111. 

Mrs.  Alfred  Bayliss,  Ma- 
comb,  111. 


in.     COUNTRY    CHURCH    MOVEAIENTS 


Federal  Council  of  the 
Churches  of  Christ  in 
America. 


Department  of  Church 
and   Country   Life. 

County  Work  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian 
Association. 

County  Work  of  the 
Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association. 

New  England  Country 
Church  Association. 


Illinois      Church      Federa- 
tion. 


"To  forward  the  federative 
idea  among  churches."  Has 
special  rural  department. 
(Page  50.) 

Rural  division  of  the  Presby- 
terian Board  of  Home  Mis- 
sions.     (Page  53.) 

To  advance  the  spiritual  and 
moral  welfare  of  boys  in 
rural  districts.      (Page  57.) 

Moral  and  spiritual  work 
among  girls  in  country  dis- 
tricts.     (Page  60.) 

To  upbuild  and  federate  the 
country  churches  of  New 
England.      (Page  50.) 

State  organization  of  churches. 


General  Secy.  Rev.  E.  B. 
Sanford.  D.D.,  Rural 
Secy.  Rev.  George  F. 
Wells,  1611  Clarendon 
Bldg.,    New    York    City. 

Dr.  Warren  H.  Wilson, 
1.56  5th  Ave.,  New  York 
City. 

Secretary  Albert  E.  Rob- 
erts. International  Asso- 
ciation Bldg.,  124  East 
2Sth  St.,  New  York. 

Secretary  Jessie  Field, 
125  East  27th  Street, 
New   York. 

President,  Prof.  T.  N. 
Carver,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, Cambridge, 
Mass. 

Rev.  Charles  E.  Bacon, 
Rooms  920-22  Associa- 
tion Bldg.,  Chicago,  HI. 


TV.     FARMERS     ORGANIZATIONS — BUSINESS    AND    PROFESSIONAL 

National     Department     of      Special  bureau  of  the  Depart-  Farmers'     Institute     Spe- 

Farmers'  Institutes.                  ment  of  Agriculture  devoted  cialist    John     Hamilton, 

to  farmers'   institutes.  Washington,  D.  C. 
(Page  94.) 


386   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


Movement 
American    Association    of 
Farmers'    Institute 
\Yorkers. 

Farmers'  Cooperative 
Demonstration   Worli. 

DeKalb    County    Soil    Im- 
provement Association. 

American        Society        of 
Equity. 

Hood    River    Fruit    Grow- 
ers'  Association. 


Purpose   and   Explanation 

An  organization  of  institute 
instructors  for  tlie  promo- 
tion of  their  worls.  (Page 
95.) 

To  teacli  scientific  farming  to 
farmers  of  tbe  Soutb.  (Page 
307. ) 

DeKalb  County,  111.,  employs 
a  county  secretary  of  agri- 
culture. 

National  organization  to  fur- 
ther tbe  systematic  market- 
ing of  crops. 

To  control  the  marketing  of 
apples.      (Page  306.) 


Sources    of   Information 

.\nnual  Proceedings,  from 
Farmers'  Institute  Spe- 
cialist John  Hamilton, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Director  W.  L.  English, 
Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,   1).   C. 

William  G.  Eckbardt,  De- 
Kalb, 111. 

Pres.  James  A.  Everitt, 
Indianapolis,    Ind. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Sproat,  Hood 
River,    Oregon. 


V.     ROADS    ASSOCIATIONS 


National    Office   of    Public 
Roads. 


Permanent  International 
Association  of  Koad 
Congresses. 

Tbe  American  Association 
for  Highway  Improve- 
ment. 

The  National  Good  Roads 
Association, 

Good  Roads  Department, 
National  Letter  Car- 
riers' Association. 

State  Good  Roads  Asso- 
ciation. 


Farmers'        Good        Roads 
League  of  Illinois. 

Iowa   Kiver-to- River   Road 
Association. 


Special  bureau  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  devoted 
to  roads.  (Pages  113  and 
127.) 

Tbe  promotion  of  road  science 
on  an  international  scale, 
(Page  125.) 

To  serve  as  a  clearing  house 
for  road  information,  and  to 
correlate  all  highway  effort. 
(Page  124.) 

To  educate  the  public  to  tbe 
necessity  of  improved  roads. 
(Page  124.) 

An  effort  of  letter  carriers  to 
further  the  road  movement. 

All  states  have  such  organiza- 
tions for  road  improvement. 
(Page  127.) 


To  advance  the  building  of 
bard  roads. 

Formed  to  drag  and  maintain 
a  3i0-mile  road  across  the 
state.     (Page  123.) 


Director      L.      W.      Page, 
Washington,  1)'.  C. 


Office  of  Public  Roads, 
Washington,  D.   C. 

Address  tbe  Association, 
Colorado  Building, 
Washington,   D.  C, 

Fi-es.  Arthur  C.  Jackson, 
Chicago  Opera  House 
Bldg.,   Chicago. 

C.  M.  Adams,  Director, 
Davenport,   Iowa. 

Address  State  Highway 
Engineer  at  various 
state  capitals.  In  Illi- 
nois, Mr.  A.  N.  John- 
son, Springfield. 

Secretary  Mr.  H.  H. 
Gross,  6001  Indiana 
Ave.,   Chicago. 

Secretary  J.  W.  Eicbinger, 
Des   Moines,   la. 


VI.     SCHOOL  AND  EDUCATIONAL   MOVEMENTS 


Country     Teachers'     Asso- 
ciation of  Illinois. 


Women's  School  Better- 
ment Association  of  the 
South. 

Boys'  Corn  and  Agricul- 
tural Clubs. 

Graduate  School  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Association  of  American 
Agricultural  Colleges 
and  Experiment  Sta- 
tions, 

Southern    Boys'    Corn 
Clubs, 


Organization  of  country  teach- 
ers for  advancing  the  wel- 
fare of  country  schools. 
(Page  273.) 

An  organization  of  Southern 
women  for  the  improvement 
of  schools. 

These  are  established  in  many 
states,  especially  Nebraska, 
Iowa,      Ohio      and      Texas. 

To  promote  agricultural  re- 
search.     (Page  3U4.) 

.\n  organization  of  institutions 
named  to  promote  agricul- 
tural  science.      (Page   304.) 

National  work  conducted 
through  the  South  by  tbe 
Department  of  Agriculture. 
(Pages  232  and  3US.) 


Mabel  Carney,  State  Nor- 
mal School,  Normal,  111. 


Mrs.  Charles  D.  Maclver, 
Greensboro,    N,    0. 

State  Superintendents  of 
states  named. 

President  of  any  state  col- 
lege of  agriculture. 

Circular  36.  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations, 
Washington,  D.   C. 

Director  O.  S.  Martin, 
Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
Washington.  D.  C. 


DIRECTORY  OF  RURAL  PROGRESS 


387 


Movement 

The      Anna      T.      Jeanes 
Fund. 


Rural     School 
Exhibits. 


Industrial 


Polish  -  American 
ers'   Day. 


Farm- 


Purpose   and   Explanation 

One  million  dollars  devoted  to 
the  improvement  of  negro 
rural    schools.      (Page   .3n9.) 

State  movement  by  the  College 
of  Agriculture  to  further 
this  work. 

An  attempt  to  aid  immigrant 
farmers.  The  lirst  eflfort  of 
its  kind  so  far  undertaken  in 
the  United  States. 


Sources   of  Information 

Dr.  J.  H.  Dillard,  571 
Audubon  St.,  New  Or- 
leans,  La. 

Director  George  F.  How- 
ard. College  of  Agricul- 
ture,   St.    Paul,    Minn. 

Prof.  William  D.  Hurd, 
Director  of  Extension, 
College  of  Agriculture, 
Amherst,    Mass. 


VII.     LIBRARY   AND    PRESS    MOVEMENTS 


The   Farmers'   Voice. 


Conference    of    Rural    Li- 
brarians. 

Wisconsin     Traveling     Li- 
braries. 

Illinois  Library  Extension 
Commission. 

Minnesota    Farmers'    Club 
and   Library   Movement. 

Cornell      Reading      Course 
for  Farmers, 


Agricultural  journal  emphasiz- 
ing rural  social  progress, 
(Page  102.) 

To  further  the  use  of  libraries 
as  rural  social  centers. 

To  send  traveling  libraries 
into   rural   districts. 

To  circulate  free  traveling 
libraries. 

To     establish    local     farmers' 

clubs  and  issue  bulletins  for 

their  use. 
Furnishes     bulletins     to     New 

York      farmers      and     their 

wives. 


Arthur  J.  Bill,  editor, 
Bloomington,  111. 

Miss  Anna  M.  Tarbell, 
Brimfield,   Mass. 

Miss  Lutie  E.  Stearns, 
Wisconsin  Library  Com- 
mission.   Madison. 

Miss  Eugenia  Allin,  De- 
catur,  111. 

Farmers'  Library,  f niver- 

sity     Farm,     St.     Paul, 

Minn. 
Prof.  C.  H.  Tuck.   Cornell 

College    of    Agriculture, 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


VIII.     COUNTRY   BEAUTIFUL    M0\T:MENTS 


American  Civic  Associa- 
tion. Department  of 
Rural  Improvement. 

Illinois  Outdoor  Improve- 
ment Association. 

Massachusetts  Civic 
League. 


Devoted  to  the  civic  upbuild- 
ing of  the  country. 

To  encourage  landscape  im- 
provement. 

A  state  federation  of  local 
civic  improvement  associa- 
tions. 


Office  of  the  Secretarv, 
91.3-U  Union  Trust 
Bldg.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Pres.  Edward  J.  Parker, 
Quincy,    111, 

Mr.  E.  T.  Hartman,  3  Joy 
Street,  Boston. 


The  International  Har- 
vester Company  Service 
Bureau. 


Field  Day  and  Play  Pic- 
nic for  Country  Chil- 
dren,   New  Paltz,   N.  Y. 

Farmers'  Legislative  Club 
of  Illinois. 

Boston  Town  Room. 


Cornell    Agricultural    Sur- 
veys. 


IX.     MISCELLANEOUS 

A  general  clearing  house 
of  agricultural  information. 
Lantern  slides,  photographs, 
articles,  statistics,  etc.,  re- 
lating to  farm  life  furnished 
free. 

To  further  the  growth  of  play 
in  the  country. 


To  protect  and  advance  the 
legal  welfare  of  agriculture. 
(Page  307.) 

A  center  of  information  on 
Massachusetts  rural  towns. 
Furnishes  local  historical 
data,  legends,  relics,  etc. 

Intensive  study  of  the  rural 
resources  and  conditions  of 
a  county  of  New  York, 


International  Harvester 
Company,  Harvester 
Bldg.,  Chicago,  lU. 


Myron  T.  Scudder,  Rut- 
gers Preparatory  School, 
New  Brunswick,  New 
Jersey. 

Pres.  Hon.  Clavton  S. 
Pervier,   Sheffield,   111. 

Librarian,  Boston  Town 
Room,  No.  3  Joy  Street. 


Secy.  A.  R.  Mann.  Cornell 
Agricultural  College, 
Ithaca.  N.  Y. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Note. — The  following  bibliography  has  been  carefully  selected  from  a 
reading  list  of  several  hundred  annotations.  Students  in  school  will 
find  all  references  easily  available,  and  working  country  teachers  can 
procure  many  for  the  asking.  All  books  listed  may  be  bought  of 
A.  C.  McClurg  &  Company,  Chicago,  or  the  Baker  and  Taylor  Com- 
pany, New  York,  at  the  prices  quoted,  and  single  copies  of  all  maga- 
zines referred  to  may  be  purchased  of  the  H.  W.  Wilson  Company, 
Minneapolis,  ]\Iinnesota.  References  marked  with  the  asterisk  are 
best  for  teachers. 

PART  I.— COUNTRY  LIFE 

/.    Country  Life  in  General — Books 

*Bailey,  L.   H. — The  Country  Life   ^Movement.     IMacmillan   Co.,   New 

York,    191 1.     $1.25.     Clear   analysis   of  the  present   Country   Life 

Movement  made  by  its  chief  guide. 
*Bailey,  L  H. — Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture.     In  four  volumes. 

Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,   1909.     $20.     Vol.   I,  Farms,   Climates, 

and  Soils;  II,  Farm  Crops;  III,  Farm  Animals;  IV,  The  Farm  and 

the  Community.     Extremely  valuable. 
*Bailey,  L.  H. — The  Farmer  and  the  State.    Macmillan  Co..  New  York. 

$1.25.    Valuable  contribution;  should  be  read  by  all  farmers. 
*Bailey,   L   H. — The   Training  of   Farmers.      The   Century   Co.,    New 

York,  1909.    $1.    Discusses  the  means  of  training  farmers,  and  the 

common  school  and  the  college  in  relation  to  farm  training. 
*Buell,  Jennie. — One  Woman's  Work  for  Farm  Women.    Whitcomb  & 

Barrows,  Boston.     50  cents.     Story  of  the  life  of  Mary  A.  Mayo, 

of  Michigan,  a  pioneer  country  life  leader. 
*Butterfield,  K.   L. — Chapters  in   Rural   Progress.     The  University  of 

Chicago    Press,    Chicago,    1908.     $1.      The   best   analysis   of   rural 

sociological  conditions  yet  published. 
*Butterfield,  K.  L.— The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem.    The 

University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago,  191 1.    $1.    Excellent  analysis 

of  the  country  church  situation.     Shows  relation  of  the  church  to 

the  whole  rural  problem. 

388 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


389 


*Carver,  T.  N.— Principles  of  Rural  Economics.     Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston, 
191 1.     $1.30.     Most  scholarly  discussion  of  rural  economics  so  far 
published. 
Coulter,  John  Lee.— Cooperation  Among  Farmers.     Sturgis  &  Walton, 

New  York,  191 1.    75  cents. 
Davenport,  Eugene.— Education   for  Efficiency.     D.   C.   Heath  &   Co.. 
Boston,  1910.    $1.    Valuable  analysis  of  the  place  of  agriculture  in 
the  public  school  curriculum. 

*Dodd,  Mrs.  Helen.— The  Healthful  Farmhouse.  Whitcomb  &  Bar- 
rows, New  York,  1906.  60  cents.  A  practical  account  of  the 
remodeling  of  a  farmhouse. 

*Field,  Jessie.— The  Corn  Lady.  A.  Flanagan  Co.,  Chicago.,  191 1. 
The  letters  of  a  country  teacher  to  her  father.  Suggestive  and 
concrete. 

*Foght,  Harold  \V.— The  American  Rural  School.  :^Iacmillan  Co., 
New  York,  1909.  $1.25.  Deals  with  problems  of  the  country 
school  chiefly  from  the  administrative  point  of  view. 

*Grayson.  David. — Adventures  in  Contentment.  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Co.,  Garden  City,  L.  I.,  N.  Y.,  1910.  $1.20.  Charming  sketches  of 
life  in  the  open  country. 
Haggard,  H.  R.— Rural  Denmark  and  Its  Lessons.  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.,  London.  191 1.  $2.25.  An  account  of  the  marvelous 
agricultural  transformation  of  Denmark. 

*Kern,  O.  J. — Among  Country  Schools.     Ginn  &  Co.,   Boston.     $1.25. 
Deals  with  country  school  problems  from  the  teacher's  viewpoint. 
Profusely  illustrated. 
Ogden,  H.  R. — Rural  Hygiene.    Macmillan  Co.    $1.50. 

*Page,  Logan  Waller. — Roads,  Paths  and  Bridges.  Sturgis  &  Walton 
Co.,  New  York,  1912.  75  cents.  The  best  book  on  roads  for 
farmers  yet  written.  Explains  the  service  of  the  national  Office 
of  Public  Roads  and  contains  essential  information  upon  road- 
making  and  care. 

*Plunkett,  Sir  Horace. — The  Rural  Life  Problems  in  the  United  States. 
The  ]\Iacmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1910.  $1.25.  Written  by  a  leader 
of  Irish  agriculture.  Declares  busiiaess  cooperation  the  chief 
need  of  American   farmers. 

*Report  of  the  Commission  on  Country  Life.  Government  Printing 
Office,  Washington,  D.  C.  10  cents  (not  in  stamps).  Or  complete 
in  book  form  from  the  Sturgis  &  Walton  Co.,  New  York.  84  cents, 
postpaid.    Summary  of  country  Hfe  conditions  in  the  United  States, 


390    COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

with  constructive  suggestions  for  remedy.  Probably  the  most 
important  single  document  ever  published  on  American  farm  life. 

*Wilson,  Warren  H.— The  Church  of  the  Open  Country.  Missionary 
Education  Movement  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  New  York, 
191 1.  50  cents.  Constructive  and  stimulating  treatment  of  the 
difficulties  of  the  country  church. 

*Wray,  Angelina.— Jean  Mitchell's  School.  Public  School  Publishing 
Co.,  Bloomington.  $1.  Charming  narrative  of  a  country  teacher's 
experience.     Suggestive  and  helpful  for  young  teachers. 

//.    Country  Life — Sociological  Phases 

Actual   Rural    Independence.      World's    Work,   2:719-21,    May,    1901. 

Portrays  modernized  farm  life ;  attractive  picture  of  comfort. 
Life  of  the  Farmer;  Symposium.     Outlook,  91:823-35,  April  10,  1909. 
Several  short  articles  presenting  farm  life  from  different  points  of 
view. 

*Drift  to  the  City  in  Relation  to  the  Rural  Problem.  J.  M.  Gillette, 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  16:645-67.  March,  191 1.  Says 
that  the  city  drift  is  not  so  baneful  because  of  general  decrease  as 
because  rural  leaders  are  thus  extracted  from  the  country  com- 
munity. 
Rural  Slums.  H.  White.  Independent,  65:819-21.  Oct.  8,  1908. 
Says  slums  exist  in  country  as  in  city  and  discusses  same. 

*Why  Boys  Leave  the  Farm.  L.  H.  Bailey.  Century,  72:410-416.  July, 
1906.    Report  of  questionnaire  addressed  to  Cornell  students. 

*Why  Some  Boys  Take  to  Farming.  Century,  yz  :6i2-i7.  Aug.,  1906. 
Report  of  questionnaire  as  above. 

///.    Country  Life — Economic  Phases 

*  Agrarian  Revolution  in  the  Middle  West.  J.  B.  Ross.  North  Amer- 
ican Reviczi',  190:376-91.  September,  1909.  Valuable  analysis  of 
the  cause  and  effect  of  farm  migration  in  section  named. 

*Bottom  Economic  Fact.  World's  Work,  20  :i3iiS-6.  July,  1910.  Says 
bottom  economic  fact  for  a  prosperous  agriculture  is  for  each  man 
to  own  his  own  land. 
Cooperative  Farmer.  J.  C.  Coulter.  World's  Work,  23 :59-63.  No- 
vember, 191 1.  Good  treatment  of  the  status  of  agricultural  business 
cooperation  in  the  United  States. 

♦Passing  of  the  Man  With  the  Hoe.  World's  Work,  20:13246-58. 
August,  1910.  Inspirational  account  of  the  agricultural  revolution 
due  to  engine-plowing  and  the  use  of  other  machinery. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  3^1 

System  of  Tenant  Farming  and  Its  Results.  J.  W.  Froley,  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.  Paper,  5  cents.  A 
special  study  of  tenant  farming  in  the  South. 

♦Tenancy  in  the  North  Central  States.  B.  H.  Hibbard.  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Economics.  25710-29.  August,  191 1.  Names  the  high 
price  of  land  and  the  one-crop  system  as  chief  factors  in  tenancy. 
An  excellent  fundamental  study. 

*What  We  Must  Do  to  Be  Fed.  James  J.  Hill;  World's  Work, 
ig  112226-54.  November,  1909.  Emphasizes  the  necessity  of  scien- 
tific  farming. 

IV.   Farm  Home  and  Women  on  the  Farm 

Dodd,  Mrs.  Helen — The  Healthful  Farmhouse.     See  book  list  above. 

Buell,  Jennie. — One  Woman's  Work  for  Farm  Women.  See  book  list 
above. 

Ogden,  H.  R. — Rural  Hygiene.  See  book  list  above. 
*Davenport,  Mrs.  E. — Possibilities  of  the  Country  Home  (bulletin). 
Published  by  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana.  Treats  lighting,  water 
supply,  beautifying,  and  other  phases  of  farmhouse  improvements. 
Very  practical. 
*King,  F.  H. — Ventilation  for  Dwellings,  Rural  Schools,  and  Stables, 
Published  by  the  author,  IMadison,  Wis.  75  cents.  An  excellent, 
practical  discussion  of  the  necessity  and  method  of  proper  ventila- 
tion for  both   man   and  animals. 

Farmers'  Institute  Lecture  No.  8.  Syllabus  of  Illustrated  Lecture 
on  Farm  Architecture.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Washington, 
D.  C.  Lecture  and  slides  furnished  free  for  those  who  desire  their 
use. 
The  following  numbers  of  Farmers'  Bulletins,  free  from  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. :  99,  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade 
Trees;  126,  Practical  Suggestions  for  Farm  Buildings;  *I55,  How 
Insects  Affect  Health  in  Rural  Districts;  *i85,  Beautifying  Home 
Grounds ;  248,  The  Lawn ;  *27o.  Modern  Conveniences  for  Farm 
Homes ;  *345,  Some  Common  Disinfectants ;  375,  Care  of  Food  in 
the  Home;  *389,  Bread  and  Bread  Making. 

V.    Country  Church 

*Butterfield,  K.  L.— The  Country  Church  and  the  Rural  Problem.     See 

book  list. 
^Wilson,  W.  H.— The  Church  of  the  Open  Country.     See  book  list. 
^Biennial  Reports  of  the  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in 


392 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


America.     1611  Clarendon  Bldg.,  New  York.    Free.    Best  source  of 
information  regarding  church  federation. 

^Rural  Manhood.  Monthly  magazine  devoted  to  the  work  of  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  in  rural  districts.  Published  by  the 
International  Committee  of  the  Y.  AL  C.  A.,  at  124  East  28th  Street, 
New  York.     $1  a  year. 

^Proceedings  of  the  New  England  Country  Church  Association.  Ad- 
dress the  President,  Prof.  T.  N.  Carver,  16  Kirkland  Road,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.  Free. 
A  Proper  Village  Church.  World's  Work,  16:10364-70.  June,  1908. 
Deals  most  commendably  with  country  and  village  church  archi- 
tecture. 

*]\Iodern  Methods  in  the  Country  Church.  M.  B.  McNutt.  Missionary 
Education  Movement,  New  York.  Free.  Detailed  story  of  ten 
years'  experience  in  a  country  church. 

*Ten  Years  in  a  Country  Church.  Matthew  B.  McNutt.  World's 
Work,  21  :i376i-66.  December,  1910.  An  account  of  perhaps  the 
best  country  church  in  the  United  States  as  told  by  its  pastor. 
Religious  Overlapping,  A.  J.  Kennedy.  Independent,  64*795  and  1028. 
April  9  and  May  7,  1908.  Pictures  conditions  in  a  typical  over- 
churched  village. 

VI.    Farmers'  Organizations 

♦Farmers'  Social  Organizations.  K.  L.  Butterfield.  Cyclopedia  of  Agri- 
culture, 4:289-91.  Best  reference  article  on  subject;  treats  various 
organizations  briefly. 

♦National   Grange   Proceedings.     Published  annually.     Address  Oliver 

Wilson,   Peoria,  111.     Free. 
State  Grange — A  Social  Force.    Survey,  23 :  703-4.    February  12,  1910. 

Account  of  Grange  influence  in  New  York  state. 
The   Grange — Its    Work   and    Ideals.     Nezv   England   Magazine,   42: 
184-91.     April,   1910. 

♦Illinois  State  Farmers'  Institute  Report.  Address  Secretary  H.  A. 
McKeene,  Springfield.  Free.  In  other  states  address  respective 
state  officers.     For  addresses  see  circular  51  listed  below. 

♦The  best  references  on  farmers'  institutes  are  the  publications  of  the 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. Current  list  may  always  be  obtained  from  Farmers'  Insti- 
tute Specialist  John  Hamilton.  From  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Washington.  D.  C,  the  following  numbers  may  be  obtained  free: 
C/;T»/or.y— ♦No.  51.  List  of  State  Directors  of  Farmers'  Institutes 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  393 

and  Institute  Lecturers  in  the  United  States  for  Last  Current  Year; 
*No.  85,  Farmers'  Institutes  for  Women ;  No.  98,  Progress  in  Agri- 
cultural Education  Extension  (1910).  Bulletins— Ko^.  154,  165,  182, 
199,  213,  and  Proceedings  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  annual 
meetings  of  the  American  Association  of  Farmers'  Institute 
Workers. 
From  the  Superintendent  of  Documents  the  following  pay  publica- 
tions and  others  may  be  obtained :  Bulletins — No.  135,  Legisla- 
tion Relating  to  Farmers'  Institutes  in  the  United  States.  5  cents ; 
*No.  174.  History  of  Farmers'  Institutes  in  the  United  States.  John 
Hamilton,  1906.     15  cents. 

VIL   Agricultural  Education 

Farmers'  Debt  to  Science.  Review  of  Reviews,  36:186-94,  August, 
1907. 

Leadership    of   the   Agricultural    College.      K.    L.    Butterfield.     Inde- 
pendent, 65:368-70,  August   13,   1908. 
*Making  Good  Farmers  Out  of  Poor  Ones.     Rosa  P.  Childs.     Reviezv 
of  Reviews,  42 :  November,  1910,  pp.  563-8.     Interesting  account  of 
Dr.  S.  A.  Knapp's  work  among  southern  farmers. 

Railroading  Knowledge  to  Farmers.  World's  Work,  23:100-106. 
November,  191 1.  Account  of  agricultural  exhibit  trains.  Well 
illustrated. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  B.  M.  Davis.  Elementary 
School  Teacher,  10:101-9.  November,  1909.  Good  explanation  of 
the  work  and  organization  of  this  department. 

The  Land  Grant  Colleges.    Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  4:415-17. 

VIII.    Roads  and  Transportation 

*Page,  Logan  Waller. — Roads,   Paths,   and   Bridges. ,    See  book  list. 
*Raveners  Road  Primer  for  School  Children.     A.  C.  ^^IcClurg  &  Co., 

Chicago,  1912.    $1.    An  elementary  discussion  of  roads.    Used  as  a 

text  in  the  schools  of  ^Missouri.    Very  helpful  to  country  teachers. 
*A  Good  Roads  Agent.     Charles  Dillon.     Harper's  Weekly,  54:11-12. 

April  9,  1910.     A  story  recounting  the  humorous  experiences  of  a 

good-roads  enthusiast,  in  "Nameless  Country,"  Missouri. 
*Dragging  a  Road  Across  Iowa.     Harper's  Weekly,  54:11-12,  July  22,, 

1910.    Tells  of  the  dragging  of  a  road  380  miles  long  across  Iowa. 
*Good   Roads  the  Way  to   Progress.     Logan   A\'aller   Page.      World's 

Work,  18:11807-19,  July,   1909.     Excellent,  popular  article  showing 

the  value  of  good  roads.     Well  ilhistrated. 


394 


COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 


*Pnce  We  Pay  for  Bad  Roads.  Collier's,  42:14-15,  July  17,  1909.  Good, 
popular  article.     Well  illustrated. 

*Roadbuilding  and  Maintenance,  with  Examples  of  French  and  English 
Methods.  Ernest  Flagg.  C^«/»r3>,  79:139-49,  November,  1909.  Ex- 
cellent comparison  of  American  and  European  efficiency  in  road 
building. 

*What  the  ]\Iotor  Vehicle  Is  Doing  for  the  Farmer.  Scientific  Amer- 
ican, 102:50,  January  15,  1910.  Tells  of  the  extensive  use  of  auto- 
mobiles by  farmers  and  speaks  of  makes  v/ell  adapted  to  farm  use. 
From  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  the  following 
publications  listed  in  Public  Roads  Circular  No.  88,  3rd  revision, 
may  be  obtained  free:  Circulars — No.  21,  Methods  of  Constructing 
Macadam  Roads ;  ^22,,  Money  Value  of  Good  Roads  to  Farmers ; 
2y,  Cost  of  Hauling  Farm  Products  to  Market  in  European  Coun- 
tries ;  91,  Sand-clay  and  Earth  Roads  in  the  Middle  West.  Farmers' 
Bulletins — *No.  311,  Sand-clay  and  Burnt-clay  Roads;  *32i.  Use 
of  the  Split-log  Drag  (D.  W.  King)  ;  *338.  Macadam  Roads. 
Yearbook  Articles — 332,  Building  Sand-clay  Roads  in  Southern 
States ;  *350,  Practical  Road  Building  in  Madison  County,  Ten- 
nessee;  *407,  Progress  of  Road  Legislation  and  Improvement  in 
Different  States;  412,  Object  Lesson  Roads;  *Syllabus  of  Illus- 
trated Lectures  on  Roads  and  Road  Building — Farmers'  Institute 
Lecture  No.  7. 
From  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C,  the  fol- 
lowing publications  listed  in  Public  Roads  Circular  No.  88,  3rd  re- 
vision, may  be  obtained:  Circulars — *No.  ZZ,  Road  Improvement 
in  Governor's  Messages,  5  cents ;  *34,  Social,  Commercial,  and 
Economic  Phases  of  the  Road  Subject,  5  cents;  36,  List  of  Na- 
tional, State,  and  Local  Road  Associations,  5  cents. 

PART  II.  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

/.    School  Buildings  and  Grounds 

*Circular  descriptive  of  the  rural  school  building  of  Cornell  College  of 
Agriculture.  Address  the  College,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Photograph,  plan, 
and  specifications  of  excellent  building  costing  $1,800.  Send  for; 
free. 
Heating  and  Ventilation  of  Small  Schoolhouses.  Bulletin  No.  15. 
Issued  by  the  State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.  Contains  especially  a  form  for  reports  on  rural  school 
heatinsf  and  ventilating. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


395 


*Indiana  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  1908. 
F.  A.  Cotton,  Chapter  VIII.  Postage  44  cents.  Excellent  refer- 
ence treating  all  phases  of  country  school  architecture;  well  illus- 
trated. 

*]\Iodel  Rural  School  of  the  IMissouri  State  Normal  School  at  Kirks- 
ville.  A  bulletin  published  by  the  Normal  School.  Contains  dia- 
grams, photographs,  and  full  description  of  plans. 

*New  Type  of  Rural  Schoolhouse.  Craftsman,  20:212-15,  May,  1911. 
Good  description  of  the  Cornell  rural  schoolhouse.    Well  illustrated. 

*The  One-room  and  Village  Schools  in  Illinois.  By  U.  J.  Hoffman 
and  W.  S.  Booth.  A  bulletin  issued  by  the  State  Department  of 
Education,  Springfield,  111.  Contains  plans  and  cost  of  the  model 
rural  school  building  recommended  by  the  Illinois  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education. 
Annual  Flowering  Plants.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  195 ;  free.  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  134; 
free.     Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

//.    Social  Aspects 

*Boys'  and  Girls'  Agricultural  Clubs.  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  385. 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  Tells  of  various  clubs 
and  of  the  movement  in  general.  Illustrated. 
Boys'  Demonstration  Work :  the  Corn  Clubs.  Bulletin.  Superin- 
tendent of  Documents,  Washington,  D.  C.  Paper,  5  cents.  Official 
report  of  the  work  of  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp's  southern  boys'  corn 
clubs. 

*Field  Day  and  Play  Picnic  for  Country  Children.  Pamphlet  by  Myron 
T.  Scudder.  Charities  Publication  Committee,  105  East  22nd  Street, 
Ne"w  York.  10  cents.  See  also  Outlook,  92:1031-8.  Contains  an 
account  of  a  play  picnic  and  valuable  helps  for  conducting  others 

^Socializing  the  Country  School.  School  News,  October  and  November, 
1908.  Concrete  narrative  of  what  one  country  teacher  did  in  this 
direction. 

///.    Curricuhiin 

^Common  Schools  and  Farming.  In  Bailey's  The  Training  of  Farmers, 
pp.  137-66.  See  book  list  above.  Excellent :  shows  necessity  of 
teaching  in  terms  of  the  daily  experience  of  children  and  projects 
prophetic  ideal  of  country  teaching. 


396   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

♦Davenport,  E. — The  Next  Step  in  Agricultural  Education.  Bulletin 
published  by  the  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana.  An  argument  for 
a  balanced  education  of  liberal  and  vocational  training  for  farrri 
children. 

♦Geography  in  Rural  Schools.  Richard  E.  Dodge,  Journal  of  Geogra- 
phy, 8:202-6,  ]\Iay,  1910.  Shows  well  how  to  teach  geography  in 
relation  to  farm  life. 

♦Industrial  and  Social  Work  in  the  Elementary  School.  Frederick  G. 
Bonser  and  others.  A  series  of  four  bulletins  issued  by  the  Western 
Illinois  State  Normal  School,  Macomb.  An  excellent  concrete  ex- 
ample of  how  to  relate  school  work  to  daily  life.  Illustrated. 
Industrial  Education  for  Rural  Communities.  Report  of  Special  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  Educational  Association.  Annual  proceed- 
ings for  1908.  Gives  detailed  accounts  of  industrial  work  done  in 
various  consolidated  and  rural  schools  and  contains  general  sugges- 
tions on  rural  industrial  w^ork. 

IV.    Country  Teachers — Training  and  Leadership 

♦Country  School  Department  of  the  Illinois  State  Normal  University. 
A  bulletin.     Address  the  institution  at  Normal,  Illinois. 

♦Rural  School  Department  of  the  Kirksville  Normal  School.     A  bul- 
letin.    Address  the  institution  at  Kirksville,   j\Io. 
County  Training  Schools.    Biennial  report  of  the  State  Superintendent 
of  Wisconsin.     1906-08;  58-85. 

♦Educational  Engineers.  Booker  T.  Washington.  Outlook,  95 :266-7, 
June  4,  1910.  Excellent  article  revealing  the  country  teacher's 
opportunity  for  leadership. 

♦Michigan's  Preparation  of  Teachers  for  Rural  Schools.  Ernest  Burn- 
ham.     Elementary  School  Teacher,  9:138-45,  November,   1908. 

♦State  Normal  Schools  and  the  Rural  School  Problem.  H.  N.  Loomis. 
Educational  Review,  39:484-99,  ]\Iay,  1910.  Exhaustive  article 
showing  effort  of  normal  schools  in  this  field. 
Training  of  Teachers  for  Rural  Schools.  A.  E.  Bennett.  Bulletin. 
Address  writer  at  Fayette,  Iowa.  Address  before  the  Iowa  State 
Teachers'  Association  advocating  country  teacher  training  in  high 
schools. 
Teachers  for  the  Country  School ;  kind  wanted ;  how  to  secure  them. 
L.  J.  Alleman.  National  Educational  Association  Proceedings. 
1910 :28o-2.  Special  preparation  of  teachers  for  rural  schools. 
N.  E.  A.,  1910;  575-88. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  397 

V.   Supervision  and  Legislation 

*Country  Schools  for  Country  Children.  World's  Work,  24:102-8. 
An  account  of  the  good  supervisory  work  of  County  Superintendent 
Jessie   Field   of  Page   County,    Iowa. 

*County  Supervision.  National  Education  Association  Proceedings 
1908 :    252-71.     Discussions  by  state  superintendents. 

^Illinois  Educational  Commission  Reports.     State  Department  of  Edu- 
cation,   Springfield,    111.      1909.      Several    bulletins    containing    ex- 
haustive  studies   of   school    legislation. 
Rural   School  Board   Conventions.     C.   P.   Cary,   National   Education 
Association  Proceedings,  1907. 

*Toddling  into  Farming.  F.  G.  Moorhead.  JVorld  Today,  19:1032-7, 
September,  1910.  Describes  work  of  County  Superintendent  O.  H. 
Benson,  Clarion,  Wright  County,  Iowa. 

VI.    Consolidation 

Catalog  of  the  John  Swaney  School.  Address  the  principal,  McNabb, 
Illinois.  Contains  history  of  the  school  and  its  course  of  study. 
Illustrated. 

*Centralizated   Schools  in  Ohio.     Extension  bulletin.     February,    1909. 
Published  by  the  University  of  Ohio.   Columbus.     Free. 
Consolidation  of  Schools.     R.  J.  Aley.     National  Educational  Associa- 
tion Proceedings,  1910 :    276-7. 

*Consolidated  Rural  Schools  and  Organization  of  a  County  System. 
Geo.  W.  Knorr.  Bulletin  232.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Free.  Best  study  of  consolidation  so  far  made.  Advocates  county 
systems  for  consolidating.     Full  of  valuable  data  on  cost,  etc. 

*Consolidation  of  Country  Schools.  Bulletin  issued  by  the  University 
of  Illinois,  Urbana.  Free'.  The  report  of  a  special  committee  sent 
to  investigate  consolidated  schools  in  Ohio.  Contains  good  sum- 
maries of  the  question. 
Community  Work  in  the  Rural  High  School.  J.  D.  Crosby.  Year- 
book.    U.   S.   Department  of  Agriculture.     1910 :  177-88. 

*Indiana  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  1908 
F.  A.  Cotton.  Chapter  V.  Valuable  reference;  well  illustrated 
Speaks  of  several  schools  in  detail. 

*Hays,  Willet  M. — Education  for  Country  Life.  Circular  84,  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations,  Washington,  D.  C.  Shows  possibilities  of 
the  consolidated  school  as  a  communitv  center. 


398   COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  COUNTRY  SCHOOL 

*How  Denmark  Has  Taught  Itself  Prosperity  and  Happiness.  Booker 
T.  Washington.  World's  Work,  22:14486-94.  June,  1911.  Tells 
of  the  rural  high  schools,  or  folk  schools,  that  have  made 
Denmark   over. 

*New  Kind  of  Country  School.  O.  J.  Kern.  World's  Work,  16: 
10720-22,  September,  1908.  Good  brief  account  of  the  John  Swaney 
Consolidated  School  of  Putnam  County.   Illinois. 

*State  Bulletins  on  Consolidation.     The  following  states  publish  espe- 
cially good  bulletins  on  consohdation   (191 1).     To  obtain,  address 
state  superintendents  at  various  state  capitals :     Minnesota,  Kansas, 
Louisiana,  Washington,  North  Carolina,  Iowa,  Massachusetts,  and 
Oklahoma. 
Study   of    Fifteen    Consolidated    Rural    Schools,    their    Organization, 
Cost,  Efficiency,  and  AffiHated  Interests.     George  W.  Knorr,  South- 
ern Education  Boards  Washington,  D.  C. 
The   Township   High    School   in   Illinois.     A   bulletin   by   Horace   A. 
Hollister.     Published  by  the  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana.     Good 
account  of  the  work  of  township  high  schools.     Illustrated. 
Consolidation  and  Transportation — Supreme  Court  Decisions.     E.  C. 
Elliott.     Bulletin.    U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C. 


INDEX 

Agencies,  country  community,  12  ;  overlapping  of,  14. 

Agricultural   college,    influence  of,   303. 

Agriculture  in  schools,  purpose  of,   179  ;  course  in,   243. 

Aked,   Charles   F.,   quoted,   70. 

American  Association  of  Farmers'  Institute  Workers,  0~>. 

American   Highway   League,   124. 

Amherst  Movement,   304. 

Automobile,  effect  upon  road  building,  119 ;  for  conveyance  of  school 
children,    132.    174. 

Bailey,  Liberty  Hyde,  quoted  3.  26,  31,  273,  365  ;  referred  to,  274,  312,  320  ; 
poem  on  country  school,  325. 

Bayliss,  Alfred,  266. 

Bill,  A.  J.,  102. 

Blair,   F.    G.,   quoted,    150. 

Blake,  Edgar,  quoted,  42. 

Books,  selected  list  of,  for  country  teachers,  374. 

Butterfield,  Kenyon  L.,  indebtedness  to,  3  note  and  42  ;  referred  to,  12  note  ; 
quoted  on  the  church,  13  ;  on  the  Grange,  78  ;  warning  to  Grange,  85  ; 
referred  to,  274,  309  ;  influence  for  rural  federation,  317 ;  reference, 
320,  336. 

Campbell,   Angus,   306. 

Carpenter,  Mary,   286. 

Church,  country,  39-71,  abandoned,  8 ;  function  of,  13 ;  as  rural  progress 
agency,  39  ;  present  status.  40  ;  digest  of  replies  from  Country  Life 
Commission,  43  ;  federation  of,  47  ;  federated  church  at  Proctor,  Vermont. 
50 ;  Federal  Council  of  Churches,  50 ;  Presbyterian  Department  of 
Church  and  Country  Life,  53-57  :  Methodist,  note  57  ;  possibilities  and 
needs,  general,  60 :  local  possibilities,  62  :  DuPage  Church,  62-67 ; 
country  teacher's  relation  to,   67  ;   coming  unity,   69. 

Clear  Creek  Community,  description  of,  9-10. 

Clubs,  household  science,  38  ;  farmers',  85-88  ;  boys'  and  girls',  230  ;  parents', 
234  :   country   life,   237. 

Community  building,  significance  of,  9-10  ;  women's  share  in,  30  ;  as  a  factor 
in  rural  migration,  314  :   principles  of,  315. 

Community  center,  country,  description  of  Clear  Creek,  9  ;  diagram  of,  15 ; 
country  school  as,  134,  232  ;  consolidated  school  as,  184  ;  ideal  center 
described,   314. 

Conference  of  Agricultural  Educators  and  Rural  Social  Workers,  in  Mass., 
53,  304. 

Conservatism,   rural,   6. 

Consolidation,  149-187  ;  the  future  system,  145  ;  fundamental  need  of  country 
schools,  148  ;  definition  and  types,  149  ;  possibilities,  150-158  :  John 
Swaney  School,  150  ;  history  and  status,  159-170  ;  in  Indiana,  160-64  ;  in 
Minnesota,  164  ;  in  Iowa,  165  ;  in  Kansas,  165  :  in  Idaho  and  Washington, 
166  ;  in  Louisiana  and  the  South,  168  ;  advantages,  170,  180  ;  difficulties 
Involved,  171  ;  transportation,  171-74  ;  cost  of,  174-76 ;  compared  with 
other  rural  high  schools,  176  ;  advantages  as  agency  for  reconstruction  of 
country  life,  180  :  county  system  for,  181-84 ;  as  a  community  center, 
184-87  ;  future  type  of,  i86  :  duty  of  teachers  in  advancing  movement, 
187  ;  how  to  conduct  campaigns  for,  246-51  ;  legislation  for,  300. 

399 


400  INDEX 

Cooperation,  rural,  importance  of.  10  ;  forces  involved  in.  12  :  see  organization. 

Country  life,  significance  of  its  prosperity,  4 :  women's  part  in,  30 ; 
consolidated  school  as  agency  for  reconstruction  of,  180 ;  creed  for, 
203  ;  greatest  single  need  for.  252  :   prose  and  poetry  of,  321,   323. 

Country  Life  Commission,  suggestions  on  household  labor,  29  :  on  the  church, 
40 ;  digest  from,  43-47  ;  quoted  on  church  federation,  48  :  quoted  on 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  work,  57  :  report  of.  69,  389  ;  its  work,  312  :  321. 

Country  Life  Movement,  302-327  :  women's  part  in,  31  :  influence  of  roads 
on,  108  ;  character  of,  302  ;  some  developments  of,  303-313  :  relation  of 
agricultural  colleges  to,  303  :  influence  of  machinery  upon.  305  ;  relation 
of  business  organization  to,  306 :  legislation  contributing  to,  306 :  the 
movement  in  the  South,  307  :  in  the  East.  309  ;  in  the  West,  309 ;  in 
the  Middle  West,  310  :  International  Institute  of  Agriculture,  312  ; 
Country  Life  Commission  and  its  work,  312  :  needs  of  the  movement, 
313-27 ;  concreteness,  313 ;  federation  of  rural  forces,  316 ;  leadership, 
321  ;    idealism,    323. 

Country  Teachers'   Association  of  Illinois,   273. 

Country  Training  School  of  the  Macomb,  111.,  normal  school.  266-73. 

County  boards  of  education.  288. 

County  normal  schools.  256. 

County  superintendents,  normal  school  help  for.  279  :  see  also  supervision. 

County  system,  for  roads,   118  ;  for  consolidated   schools,  181-84. 

Courses  for  the  training  of  country  teachers,  outlines  of,  329-340. 

Creed,  for  country  life,  203. 

Cubberly,  Elwood  P.,  quoted,  299. 

Cummings,  C.  S.,  49. 

DeKalb  County.  Illinois,  farmers'  clubs  in,  85  ;  agricultural  secretary  in,  314. 

Digest  of  country  charch   information.   43. 

Domestic  science,  minimum  equipment  for  teaching  in  country  schools,  373. 
See  household  science. 

Dry  Farming  Congress,  310. 

DuPage  Church.  Plainfield,  Illinois,  account  of,  63-67. 

Eaton,  William  L.,  159. 

Education,  vocational,  for  farm  women,  29  ;  agricultural,  179. 

Educational  helps  and  sources  for  country  teachers,  350-58. 

Entertainments,  school,   references.  354. 

Enumclaw  consolidated  school.  167. 

Exhibits,  educational,  as  social  force,  236  ;  country  life  exhibit,  320  ;  list  of, 
for  geography,   351. 

Exhibit  trains,  agricultural.  98;  for  roads.  128. 

Extension  work,  for  homes.  38  :  through  farmers'  institutes,  98  ;  for  country 
teachers,  264  :   in  state  normal  schools,  278. 

Fairchild.   E.  T..   165  ;  quoted,  256. 

Fairs.  Grange,  82,  84. 

Farmers'  clubs,  85-87,  compared  with  granges,  85  ;  of  DeKalb  County,  Illinois, 
account  of,   86-87. 

Farmers'  Cooperative  Demonstration  Work.  307. 

Farmers'  institutes.  90-107  :  work  for  farm  homes,  34 ;  as  a  rural  progress 
agency,  90 ;  origin  and  history,  90  :  organization,  93-95  :  present  status 
and  progress,  96-100  ;  normal  institutes,  96  ;  institutes  for  women.  97  ; 
for  young  people,  97  ;  exhibit  trains,  98  ;  movable  schools.  99  ;  summer 
institutes.  100 ;  cooperation  with  school,  102-107 ;  list  of  Illustrated 
lectures.   106. 

Farm  problem,  1-17;  statement  of,  2;   significance  of,  3;  cause,  4;  solution,  7. 

Farmers'  Voice,  102. 

Farms,  average  size  of  American,  4  ;  compared  with  European,  4. 

Federal  Bureau  of  Country  Life,  need  of.  320. 

Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America,  50. 


INDEX 


401 


Federation,    of    community    agencies,    16 ;    of    churches,    47-50,    69 ;    of    rural 

forces,  316. 
Feuds,  rural,  cause  of,  7. 
Field.  Jessie,  296. 

Furnishings  and  equipment  for  country  schools,  346-350. 
France,  highway  system  of,  110. 
Geography  exhibits,   list  of,   351. 
Good  Roads,  128. 
Government,  function  of,  13. 
Government  publications,  explanation  of,   357. 
Grange,   72-89  ;   6,   14  ;   work  for   farm  homes,   34  ;  as  socializing  agency,   72  ; 

origin  and  purpose,  72  :  declaration  of  purposes,  73  ;  history,  75  ;  present 

status,   76 ;   organization,    76 ;    Pomona   grange,   77 ;   officers,   77  ;   secrecy, 

78  ;  work  and  influence,  78  ;  official  organ,  79  ;  business  undertakings,  79  ; 

educational  and  social  work,  80  :  work  for  women,  81  ;  Magnolia  grange, 

account   of,    81-84  ;    words   of   warning   to,   85 ;   compared   with   farmers' 

clubs,  85  :  cooperation  with  school,  88. 
Grout  farm  encampment,  98,  99. 
Hall,    Caroline,    81. 
Hall,   Frank,  quoted,   86  ;   104. 
Hamilton,   John,  quoted,  99. 
High  schools,  rural,  types  of,  176-179. 
Highways,  see  roads. 
Hitchcock,   Dr.,  of  Amherst,   Mass.,  91. 
Hoffman,  U.  J.,  quoted,  213. 
Home,    farm,    18-38 ;    functions   and   needs   of,    12 ;    as   progress   agency,    18 ; 

conditions,  19  ;  average,  19  ;  ideal,  22  ;  inferior,  23  ;  improvement  of,  24  ; 

spiritualizing    of,     31  ;     as    center    of    interests,     33  ;     cooperation    with 

school,   35.  234. 
House,  farm,  planning,  19  ;  sanitation  and  ventilation,  21  ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  ideas 

on,  26. 
Household   science,   37 ;   necessity   of,    for  farm   women,   29 ;    course   in,    244 ; 

see  also  domestic  science. 
Idealism,  rural,  in  Clear  Creek  Community,  10  ;  significance  of,  323  ;  school's 

part  in    stimulating,    323-325. 
Illinois,  country  churches  in,  41,  63  :  Grange  in,  81 ;  farmers'  institute  in,  96 

college  of  agriculture,  93  ;  school  revenue  in,  140  :  consolidation  in,  160 

township  high  schools  in,  176  :  legislation  for  consolidation  in,  251,  301 

country-teacher  training  in,   262-75. 
Illinois    Federation    for    Country    Life    Progress,    origin,    275 ;    account    of, 

318-20. 
Indiana,    farmers'    institute    in,    96 :    consolidation    in,    160 ;    country-teacher 

training  in,  258  ;  school  directors'  conventions  in,  301. 
Institutions,   rural,   functions  and   needs,    12. 
International  Association  of  Road  Congresses,   125. 
International  Congress  of  Farm  Women,  310. 
International  Harvester  Co.,  384. 
Iowa,    rural    population,    8 ;    farmers'    institute   in,    96 ;    dragged    road,    123 ; 

consolidation  in,  165  ;   Page  County  schools,  296. 
Isolation,  4  ;  effects  of,  6-7  ;  of  teachers,  194. 
Johnson,  A.  N.,  114. 
Jovner,  J.  Y..  168. 

Kansas,  consolidation  in,  165  ;  country-teacher  training  in,  256. 
Kelley,  Oliver  H.,  72  ;  photograph,  78. 
Kern,  O.  J.,  296. 
King,  D.  Ward,  118. 

Knapp,  Dr.   S.  A.,  corn  clubs,  232;  807. 
Knorr,  George  W.,  quoted,  159,  175,  181. 


402  INDEX 

Labor,  agricultural,  24  ;  household,  25. 

Landlordism,  increase  of,  8. 

Leadership,     country-teacher,     for     home    improvement,     37 ;     advantages    of 

teacher  for,   189  ;   requirements  for,   11)0  ;   explanation  of  true  leadership, 

192  ;  examples  of  country -teacher  leadership,  197-203  ;  teacher's  leadership 

as  social  force,  229. 
Leadership,  rural,  extraction  of,  2  ;  scarcity  of,  7,  188  ;  kinds,  322  ;  function 

of  each   kind,   322. 
Lectures,   illustrated,    106. 
Legislation,  need  of   rural,    13  ;   advocated  and   attained  by  the  Grange,   78 ; 

needed  for  country  schools,  300  ;  agricultural,  300  ;   Farmers'   Legislative 

Club  in   Illinois,  3'07. 
Lewiston  Consolidated  school,  164. 

Libraries,  in  the  home,  33  :  school  libi-aries.  where  to  get  lists  for,  356. 
Lighting,  of  homes,  32  ;  of  schoolhouses.  214-16. 
Literature  idealizing  country  life,  list  of,  365. 
Louisiana,    consolidation   in,    168. 
Lubin,   David,   312. 
MacAdam,  122. 

Macadam  road,  construction,   122:  in  future,  132. 
Machinery,  household.  28  ;  farm.  30,"). 
Magazine  articles,  where  to  buy,  388. 
Magnolia  Grange,  account  of,  81. 
Management,   household,   29. 

Manual  Training,  in  ^Yhatcom  County,    Washington,    286 ;    principles    under- 
lying and  list  of  tools,  372. 
Massachusetts,   farmers'    institutes   in,   91  ;    roads   iu,    119 ;    consolidation   in, 

159  ;   agricultural  schools  in,  179. 
Massachusetts    College    of   Agriculture,    country    church    conferences    at,    53 ; 

social  work  of,  304. 
McNutt,  Matthew  B.,  quoted,  63. 
Michigan,   Grange   in,   81  :   farmers'   institute   in,   93 ;   96 ;   women's  institutes 

in,   97 ;   exhibit  trains,   99  :   county  agricultural  schools  in,   179 ;   county 

normal  schools  in,  256  ;  training  of  country  teachers  in,  200  ;  Kalamazoo 

normal   school.   261  ;   Ilesperia   movement,   385. 
Migration,  rural,  1. 

Minister,  country,  salaries,  42  ;  training  of,  51-53  ;  leadership  of,  51. 
Minnesota,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in,  59  :  Grange  in,  81  ;  special  aid  for  country  schools, 

301  ;    consolidation   in,   164  :    agricultural   high   schools   in.    178  ;    Olmsted 

county    map,    183 ;    country-teacher    training    in    high    schools    of,    256 ; 

directors'  meetings  in,  301. 
Missouri,    road    system    of,    118 ;    road    instruction    in,    130 ;    country-teacher 

training  in,  259  ;  rural  supervision  in,  290. 
Moore,  Jerry,  232. 
Morse.  Dr.  L.   D.,   quoted,  93. 

Music  and  farm-life  songs,  for  country  schools,  list  of,  368-71. 
National  Corn  Association,   310. 
National  Good  Roads  Association,  124. 
National  Orancje  Monildy,  79  ;  88. 
New  England  Conference  for  Rural  Progress,  309. 
Normal  schools,  state  farmers'  institutes  in,  104  ;  country  school  departments 

in,  253  ;  country -teacher  training  in,  258  ;   outline  for  rural  departments 

in,  275. 
Office  of  Public  Roads  explained,  113  ;  service  of,  127  note. 
Ohio,  farmers'  institutes  in,  92  ;  consolidation  in,  159  ;  transportation  in,  172. 
Organization,  rural,  lack  of,  7. 

Organizations,  farm,  function  of,  13  ;  needs  of,  14  ;  for  business,  306. 
Outbuildings,  school,  228. 


INDEX 


403 


Pajre,  Logan  WalJor,  quoted,  111  ;  book  bj',  127  note. 

Parke,  H.  H.,  quoted,  86. 

Patrons  of  Husbandry,  see  Orange. 

Pictures,  for  farm  home,  33  note  :  for  school,  3G3. 

Plans  for  a  country  school  building,  340-46. 

Platform  for  country  life  improvement,   16-17. 

Play,  references  on,  353. 

riunkett.   Sir  Horace,  320. 

Politics,   in   highway  work,    114;   In   rural   supervision,   284,   292. 

Population,   rural,   proportion  of,  4  ;   decrease  in,  8. 

Presbyterian  Department  of  Church  and  Country  Life,  r>3  :  platform  of,  54  ; 
surveys  of,   55  ;   conferences  and  exhibits,   56  ;   summer  schools,   56. 

Press,  rural,  influence  for  home  improvement,  34  ;  discussion  of,  100-102  ; 
newspaper  as  agency  for  school  improvement,  235. 

Principles   of   country  community  building,   315. 

Problem,  country  teacher's,  stated,  206  ;  method  of  attack,  206. 

Program  for  country  schools,  358-60. 

Provincialism,   rural,   7. 

Radicalism,  rural,  6. 

Ravenel's  Road  Primer.  130,  393. 

Recreation,  rural,  through  the  church,  44  ;  through  the  school,  232,  233. 

Religion,  rural,  7,  39,  70. 

Renting,   increase  of,   8. 

Revenue,  for  roads.  119  ;  for  country  schools,  140,  175. 

Richards.  Mrs.  Ellen  H.,  19,  32. 

Roads.  108-132  ;  as  a  rural  progress  agency,  5,  108  ;  a  national  issue,  108  ; 
French  road  system  described,  110  :  organization  of  American  system, 
113  ;  defects  of  American  system,  114-16 ;  suggestions  for  an  improved 
system,  117;  road  movements  and  reforms,  118-128;  legislative  improve- 
ments, 118  ;  state  and  federal  aid,  119  ;  developments  in  road  science, 
119  ;  kinds  of  roads  defined.  120-22  ;  organizations  for,  122-25  ;  beautify- 
ing. 125;  road  education,  126-28;  country  school  and  the  road  problem, 
129-131  ;  courses  in  road  instruction,  130  ;  roads  of  the  future,  132. 

Roberts,  Albert  E.,  57.  • 

Rock  Creek  Church.  41. 

Rural  Life  Conference  in  Virginia,  308. 

Rural  Manhood,  59. 

Rural  problem,   see  farm   problem. 

Rural  school  inspectors,  297. 

Sanitation,  of  farm  homes,  21  ;  of  schools,  221. 

School,  country,  functions  of,  14,  133  ;  as  means  of  improving  homes,  35 ; 
relation  to  church,  67  ;  cooperation  with  Grange,  88 ;  cooperation  with 
farmers'  institutes.  102  ;  relation  to  road  problem,  129  ;  as  agency  in 
solution  of  farm  problem,  133-148 ;  consolidated  schools,  149-87  :  as  a 
community  center,  134  ;  first  duty,  136  ;  advantages  for  leadership.  136-38  ; 
leadership,  temporary,  138;  needs  of,  139;  defects  of  one-teacher  system, 
140-145  ;  revenue,  139  ;  decay  of,  142  ;  future  system  of,  145  ;  fundamental 
need,  148  ;  improving  physical  environment,  206-229  ;  socializing,  229-238  ; 
redirecting  course,  239-246  :   improving  administration  of,   246-251. 

School  administration,  improvement  of,  246  ;  model  country  school  program, 
358  ;  seat  work  discussed,  360. 

School  buildings,  defects  of.  206 ;  models  at  Cornell  College,  at  Kirksville, 
Mo.,  and  in  Illinois,  209;  ventilation  of,  210;  lighting,  214;  interior 
finish,  216  ;  seating,  217 ;  sanitation  and  care,  221  ;  plans  for,  340-46 ; 
furnishings  and  equipment  for,  346-50. 

School,  course  of  study,  household  science  in,  37,  244  ;  road  education  in, 
129;  in  John  Swaney  School,  156;  redirection  of,  230-246;  agriculture 
in,   179.  243  ;   rural  sociology  in,  245  ;  helps  on  course  of  study,   350-58  ; 


404 


INDEX 


pictures  for.  3G3 ;  industrial  exliibits,  351  ;  country  life  literature 
for,  365  ;  farm-life  songs  for,  368  :  domestic  science  equipment  for,  373  ; 
constructive  problems  in  school  subjects,  378-83. 

School  grounds,  improvement  of,  223 ;  what  to  plant  on,  225 ;  walks  and 
fences,  227  ;  outbuildings,  228. 

School,  social  aspects,  229-238  ;  teacher's  personal  leadership,  229  ;  boys'  and 
girls'  clubs,  230  ;  schoolhouse  meetings.  232  ;  parents'  clubs,  234 ; 
function  of  newspapers,  exhibits  and  educational  excursions  in,  235 ; 
country  life  clubs.  237  ;  cooperation  with  other  agencies,  238. 

Seat  work  in  country  schools,  360-63. 

Smith  Agricultural  School,  179. 

Sociology,  rural,  needed  by  country  teachers,  254 ;  outline  of  course  in, 
336-40. 

Soil  renovation  work.  Dr.  Knapp's,  807. 

Southern  Good  Roads,  128. 

State,  chief  function  of.  13. 

State  aid,  for  roads,  119  ;  for  consolidation,  301  ;  for  one-room  schools,  301. 

Summary  of  book.  326. 

Supervision  of  country  schools,  importance  of.  281  ;  difficulties,  281  ;  systems, 
286 ;  methods  of  selecting  county  superintendents,  287  ;  qualifications 
required  of,  288  ;  increasing  efficiency  of  system,  289  :  rural  supervision 
as  a  profession,  290 ;  salaries  of  county  superintendents,  290.  206 ; 
political  influence,  292.  298  ;  proper  method  of  selecting  rural  supervisors, 
294  ;  leadership  of  county  superintendents,  295  ;  assistance  for,  297  ; 
chief  need,  298  ;  duty  of  teachers  to  superintendents,  300. 

Surveys,  rural,  55. 

System,  country  school,  defects  of.  140  ;  fundamental  need  of,  148,  280  ; 
French  highway,  110  ;  American  highway  system,  113  ;  rural  supervision, 
286. 

Swaney,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  John,  159. 

Swaney,  John,  school,  referred  to,  9  ;  account  of.  150-6.. 

Teachers,  country,  responsibility  for  home  improvement,  36 :  relation  to 
church  question,  67  ;  as  Grange  organizers,  88  ;  cooperation  with  farmers' 
institute,  105  ;  relation  to  road  question,  131  ;  overwork  of,  143  :  in  John 
Swaney  School.  156  :  duty  concerning  consolidation,  187  ;  leadership  of, 
188-204,  229 ;  difficulties  of,  193 ;  tribute  to,  195  :  examples  of  leader- 
ship of,  196 ;  teacher's  problem  stated,  206 ;  training  of,  for  country 
schools.   252-80  ;   helps  and  sources  for,  350-58. 

Teachers,  country,  training  of,  252-80  ;  need  for  proper  preparation,  252 ; 
necessity  for  special  training  of.  252  ;  kind  of  training  needed,  254 ; 
training  of,  in  high  schools,  255  ;  in  county  normal  schools,  256 ;  in 
state  normal  schools,  258  :  course  of  study  for,  263  :  new  spirit  of,  273  ; 
outline  for  rural  departments  in  state  normal  schools,  275 ;  trained 
teachers  not  only  need  of  school,  280 ;  outlines  of  special  courses  for 
the  training  of  country  teachers,  329-40  :  list  of  books  for,  374  ;  list  of 
constructive  problems  for  country  teachers,  376-383. 

Tenantry,  growth  and  percentage  of,  8;  effects  of,  8. 

Townshend.  Dr.  N.  S.,  92. 

Township  High  School,  in  Illinois,  176. 

Township  unit  of  school  administration,  300. 

Transportation,  in  John  Swaney  school,  155  ;  for  consolidated  schools,  171-174. 

Trees,  for  school  grounds,  225  :  planting  along  highways,  125. 

Tuition,  in  country  districts,  175. 

Unity,  among  churches,  69. 

Ventilation,  of  farm  houses,  21  ;  of  school  wagons,  173 ;  of  schoolhouses, 
210-214. 

Warning  to  the  Grange,  85. 


INDEX  405 

Washinston.  consolidation  in,  166  ;  country-teacher  training  in,  261  ;  directors' 

conventions    in,    301. 
Waste,   in  one-teactier  scliool  system,  140,   145,   175  ;  in  consolidated  schools. 

181. 
Wells,  schoolhouse,  223. 
Wells,  George  Frederick,  quoted,  62. 
Wilson,  Dr.  Warren  H.,  53. 
Wilson,  Oliver,  88. 
Wisconsin,    farmers'    institute   in,    93;    county    agricultural   schools    in.    170; 

county  normal  schools  in,  256  ;  rural  school  inspector  in,  297  ;  state  aid 

to  country  schools  in,  301  ;   school  directors'   conventions,   301. 
Women,    farm,    education    of,    29 ;    in    community    affairs,    30 ;    work    of    the 

Grange  for,  80  :  institutes  for,  97  ;  conference  of,  310. 
Youker.   H.   S.,  quoted,  257. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  County  Work  of,  57-60  ;  organization,  57  ; 

function,  58  ;  extent  of,  58  :  kinds  of  activity,  59  ;  official  magazine,  58, 
Young  Women's  Christian  Association,  60. 


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